Early History

Environment and Economy

By the 1890s, large-scale fishing in the Lakes and Coorong had severely depleted stock: some commercial fishermen were reported to be laying dozens of nets, each up to a mile long, across the River and the Coorong. Illegal duck boats were slaughtering water-birds by the tens of thousands. One hunter was using a ‘punt gun’, nearly three metres long with a ten-cm bore weighing 45 kilograms – effectively a small cannon, which was responsible for destroying ‘many thousands of ducks.’ (Linn, 1988: 143-144).

As well, irrigation and domestic supply systems were taking a significant amount of water out of the Murray and the river flow was not sufficient to keep the sea water out of the Lakes: for long periods, tidal surges pushed salt water into the Lakes and up the Murray, as far as Wellington, rendering the lake water undrinkable and useless for irrigation. Even before 1900, barrages were proposed and the government ordered enquiries into their feasibility in 1901, 1903 and again in 1913. Various outlandish schemes were suggested to control the flow of the Murray and keep out the sea: one proposal involved draining Lake Albert, perhaps even Lake Alexandrina, with the Murray directed through a narrow channel along the northern and western shores of Lake Alexandrina to the sea.
Local governments had their own problems as well: in 1894, the Meningie District Council Clerk was found guilty of embezzlement. Already tensions between the pastoralists’ Meningie and the railworkers’ and small farmers’ Tailem Bend were threatening to tear the council in two. By the 1890s, Meningie was still a much smaller town than Point McLeay, but Tailem Bend, although smaller still, was growing at a much faster rate, as new branch lines were built into the Mallee and upper Murray. Despite their local power, pastoralists’ leases were resumed under the government of George Kingston between 1892 and 1898: more land on the Narrung Peninsula was offered for sale on credit to small blockers, as well as land around Waltowa, Spring Hill and south of Meningie.
Even the AFA had its troubles: in late 1892, its Treasurer, Oldham, was imprisoned at Yatala for defrauding trust accounts held by the AFA, including an account which had been set aside some thirty years before for James Unaipon, and from which he had been paid an annuity of about £ 10 [$4,000]. In the New Year, Blackwell died of a massive heart attack while riding back from Campbell Park, leaving a wife and nine children. Ambrose Redman stepped in as acting Superintendent while a replacement was found and within a few weeks, Thomas M. Sutton, the Superintendent of Point Pearce, was offered the position.

Thomas Sutton

Sutton had been a missionary in his younger days and had spent some twenty years at point Pearce. In 1893, he was fifty three years old, married with four children, mostly adult: one daughter had taught in the Point Pearce School for some thirteen years and was to help out in the Point McLeay School. Sutton carried on with Blackwell’s policy of diversifying the economic base at Point McLeay: he experimented with olives and mulberries, continued with box thorns, and broadened the number of outlets for the sale of Point McLeay’s boots.

Within weeks he sent a number of letters to the Protector, asking him to put pressure on the government to set aside stretches of the Lake and Coorong for the exclusive use of Aboriginal fishermen: a fishing reserve five miles wide was set aside from Point McLeay down to Loveday Bay, and a similar reserve was made on both sides of The Needles. As well, Section 8 of the Fisheries Amendment Act 1893 set out that:
The Governor may declare by Proclamation that the whole or any portion of any river, inlet, creek, lake, lagoon, or arm of the sea shall be a reserve within which only Aboriginal natives of SA shall be allowed to fish.
This was replaced by a clause in the Fisheries Act 1917: Sec. 48: ‘Full-blooded Aborigines can take fish for household consumption.’ This in turn was repealed in 1971. The phrasing of the legislation is not necessarily as liberal as it may seem: the construction of ‘real’ Aboriginal people as irredeemably primitive, and therefore able to survive only by hunting and gathering, was well under way and would be used for the next eighty years to restrict the rights of all those defined as ‘Aboriginal’. At the height of quite vicious racist feeling in 1900, for example, the state government still passed legislation such as the Birds Protection Act, Section Four of which set out that ‘ … Any Aboriginal native killing birds or taking eggs on Crown Lands (except as restricted) for food for himself or his family’ is permitted.’

Schooling in the 1890s
In early 1893, the Education Department informed the AFA that it would be henceforth inspecting the Point Mcleay School regularly, to ensure that the Aboriginal children there were being offered, and were receiving, an education roughly comparable with that offered to children elsewhere in State schools. It appears that Mr Gregory’s six levels, from Junior to Grade V, were continued by Mr Holman, with a very generous dash of music. Mr Holman had formed a Glee Club, made up of both adults and children, within his first year: it toured local towns and performed at the AFA’s Annual Meetings. However, he did not neglect the schooling of the children: ‘Attention is being paid to a thorough grounding of the children in the principles of a useful education and the latest methods and ideas now in use in the Education Department are being taken advantage of.’
A mothers’ club was soon inaugurated by Sutton’s wife and daughter, meeting weekly. As well, a Library and reading room had been set up and was well patronised by the men, who also attended classes run by Redman in the evenings. By 1893, there were twenty eight cottages on the Mission and demand for more was chronic.
Baker, the bootmaker-teacher, reported to the AFA that between them the young men had made nearly five hundred pairs of boots within the year, many of which were sold to trading steamers such as the Queen. As well, many local settlers preferred them to factory-made boots, ‘that for wear and durability the boots we made are superior to those made by machine.’

4th August 1893 Mr W.E. Dalton Oranges About 70 doz. oranges came in the case last week; we are charging 6^d per doz for them; allowing for freight there is a profit of about 1^d in them; [ … ] charges 1/6 & 2/-; the natives were a bit surprised at getting them so cheap. Are there any bananas in the market ? 13th October 1893 Mr. W. E. Dalton Bananas We can do with. If they are cheap and oranges going to be dear, it might be as well to stop the latter and get a larger supply of the former. They like a change and will buy anything in way of fruit. 17th October 1893 Mr. W. E. Dalton Oranges came today, no invoice. We will have to charge for them at the rate of 9/- a case; the papers as well as your last letter says that is what they are in Adelaide, not only are they dearer but being much inferior to the others…. 18th Dec 1894 Mr. W. E. Dalton Fruit 1 case of cherries, 1 case of bananas, will be enough for 28th Decr.; same for 4 Jany. The people will be away these dates. 2 cases cherries, 1 gooseberries, 1 plums will be right for the 21st.

In 1893, annual school holidays were shortened from eight to six weeks, to bring them into line with state schools, and to make up for time lost during the shearing season, when parents often took their children away with them. Sutton complained about this:

5th September 1893

Mr. W. E. Dalton

Rules I would suggest that the Committee make a rule that parents be prevented from taking their children away from School during shearing; those children are clothed and taught without any help from the parents and they go away with at least one suit of clothes which is worthless when they return. If there was a rule made by the Committee it would strengthen my hands; the orphans of course we can compel. I cannot see any reason for those people taking their families to the sheds; the children are harder to manage when they come back.
It appears that the Education Department Inspector, Mr Neal, visited twice each year: in July or so, and again in December. In accordance with the Education Act, the Superintendent assisted the teacher in enforcing the compulsory attendance of children at school, threatening to expel families from the Mission if parents allowed their children to miss school. In November, 1893, Sutton went further and demanded that families attend all religious services as well, or face expulsion. It appears that this rule remained in force for many decades. Sutton attempted to use other inducements:
15th December 1893

Mr. W. E. Dalton

Books I omitted to say in my last that we decided not to give the books at Xmas but at some future time, to have a school treat and give them then, so that too much may not be crowded into one time. It may encourage the children to come to school.
Sutton, and his successor, also had a good deal of trouble trying to ensure that unaccompanied young girls did not go away to the shearing sheds for work, since, they assumed, the girls would return pregnant. While this may have happened, a check of the birth records for the 1890s suggests that suspected dalliances were not much more likely during the months of shearing than at other times of the year.
By 1894, the old school building, while still serviceable for small classes, at Point Mcleay was becoming quite inadequate for the fifty to sixty children. The AFA was asked to fund a new building, and a deputation sent down to the Mission to investigate the situation, recommended that it do so, giving over the old school rooms to the dormitory under Miss Hunter. The men were recruited to build a new school further up the hill (on its present site)

11 May 1894 Mr. W. E. Dalton Books for Children Could you send the Books for the School in to be here not later than tomorrow week, say, the highest 1/6 and downwards; all the very little children should have something if only a card. Last year you sent as follows: 2 doz. S. School prizes, 12 @ 1/-, 6 @ 9d, 6 @ 6d, and 2 doz. picture books @ 3d, £ 1..9..5. Something about the same I propose would do. On second thought we will want more small ones as I find my daughter has 36 little ones in her class; suppose you send 3 doz. at the lower price. 19th May 1894 Mr. W. E. Dalton The children’s reward books came all right; they seem to be the right thing. There is a little bit of a grumble because there is no fruit. The good things that they had other years is talked about. But I do not think they will fare very badly; I begged some lollies from Mr. Dunk, he sent us two very nice parcels today. Fruit Would [you] please have the fruit sent in as usual ? Whatever sort may be in; apples will always be safe. School Inspector Mr. Neal examined our school yesterday. Several little things he is anxious to know, as to the extent of his authority to suggest certain lines so as to make the school as far as possible correspond with the public school &c. I advised him to call on you and have a chat over it; he promised me he would do so. As he is to come here twice a year, thus treating us as he does other schools, I think he should have a pretty free hand. He is very well pleased with the work done, thinks more attention should be paid to the boys’ gardening and manual work generally.

The AFA depended greatly on private donations and church subscriptions to assist in the operation of Point Mcleay. As more men were driven back to the Mission, work there became increasingly difficult to fund. This was compounded by the re-location of some families from Poonindie – or return in one case: Ben Varcoe, a relation of Pompey Jackson, had moved over to Poonindie in the late sixties and had now returned with a family. Pressure for accommodation of these new arrivals created may problems for Sutton at a time when funds were starting to dry up: ‘Some of our young people are wanting to get married and asking me for cottages. I wish some of our rich Colonists would give us enough money to build a couple.’ (PMLB, 27.11.1894)

Mr Redman was asked to lay off staff and cut the wage bill down: ‘Mr. Redman is so kind hearted that it is a difficult matter for him to say no when they ask for work. I feel something of the same difficulty especially when a man with a family comes and asks for work. There are a number of men here still idle.’ (PMLB, 1.6.1894). Sutton’s views were pretty scathing: ‘The question of how you would do in a place like this if it were your own property, I think I know some of the things you would not do, you would not keep so many men and what you would keep would not be natives; they are even slower on a Mission Station than any where else and the most intelligent of them are the worst in this respect. Mark Wilson is about the laziest man here.’
In mid-1894, the Minister of Education, Cockburn, visited the Mission and inspected the school. He was asked if the Education Department would help to fund the building of a new school: ‘We now have 56 children on the roll. That number of white children anywhere, the Government would build a school, why not treat our black brothers and sisters the same?’ (Sutton, PMLB, 24.7.1894) Assistance was refused on the grounds that ‘religious education was an inherent part of the course’ and therefore the education was not free and secular. This was still a sensitive issue, as was the principle of funding for schools in any form: Richard Baker, son of the old pastoralist John Baker, had set up the National Defence League, a forerunner of the Liberal Country League (and, some would say, the One Nation Party), some of whose demands included the abolition of salaries for members of parliament (so that only the wealthy could afford to stand) and halving the education budget, so that only the wealthy could afford schooling for their children (Hirst, 1973: 162). There have been worse times than our own.
1896 or so: Nat. Defence League’s journal called for abolition of payment for MPs and halving the education budget. [i.e. private funding for full schooling: also opposed free schooling.] (Hirst, 1973: 162).

In any event, preparation for building solely by Ngarrindjeri tradesmen commenced in late 1894:

7th December 1894

Mr. W. E. Dalton

Limestone We have a good deal raised. Mr. Redman thinks enough, but I do not think we have. It will take a lot of stone for the new school house, but at all events we have enough to carry it to a good height. We can commence directly after the Christmas holidays. If the weather keeps fine, we will about finish the woolwashing next week.
William McHughes supervised the masonry-work and Philip Rigney the carpentry. When finished in late 1895, the new building could comfortably accommodate the seventy four children on the roll. Sutton was concerned that a concrete floor would be quite unsuitable: ‘…the poor little mites of children in their bare feet all day on cold cement will help to propagate coughs, colds and lung complaints.’ (30.7.1895)
The school was opened in November and a report appeared in The Advertiser written by Matthew Kropinyeri:
Point McLeay Mission

For some time past the want of a new schoolhouse has been severely felt at the Point McLeay Mission Station, but lately the difficulty has been overcome by the construction of a substantial building.

The old schoolhouse was too small for the accommodation of the scholars who numbered 74, with an average attendance of 37. The natives however set to work and as a result a spacious construction measuring 40¹/₂ feet by 20¹/₂ feet has been raised. The whole of the work has been done by the natives, the carpentering department of the mission having supplied the doors and windows. On Wednesday week, the native Glee Club will visit Adelaide for the purpose of taking part in the annual [AFA] meeting, which will be held on the following evening.

An account of the opening ceremony of the school has been supplied by Mr. Matthew Kropinyeri, a member of the mission, which reads thus:

‘On Thursday the 21^st inst, a meeting was held in connection with the opening of the new school. Three members of the committee were present, viz., Messrs. M.H. Madge, E.A.H. Madge, and W. Pengelly.

‘After the singing of a hymn and a prayer, Mr. M.H. Madge was voted to the chair and he, in a very appropriate speech pointed the advantages of education, &c. Mr. J. Sumner, one of the first schoolboys at the founding of the mission then spoke of his experiences in connection with the mission and drew a very striking contrast to things past and present in reference to the work carried out on the place.

‘Messrs. E.A.H. Madge and W. Pengelly also addressed the meeting, the school children, under the direction of Mr. Holman, singing several action songs.

‘A vote of thanks to the committee for supplying this long-felt need, and also to the Messrs E.A.H. Madge and W. Pengelly for assisting at the meeting, was carried with acclamation.

‘Mr. M.H. Madge suitably responded and declared the school opened.

‘In the evening the magic lantern exhibition was exhibited by Mr. T.M. Sutton [the Superintendent] when a goodly number of views were thrown upon the screen, the schoolboys and the Glee Club singing at intervals.’ Matthew Kropinyeri, Advertiser, 26 November 1895, p.7.

From the beginning of that year, Sutton decided to cut the Christmas holidays back to five weeks.
Surprisingly, a degree of friction and resentment existed between full-bloods and half-castes:
8th March 1895

Mr. W. E. Dalton

James Unaipon is in Goolwa with his son David and his brother-in-law Peter Campbell and his son Leonard. They say they can do better there in getting game and selling it. It has always been a sore with the above lot that the half caste element is too strong here. They imagine that the blacks are not fairly dealt with.

I don’t know that they blame the Committee or the officers on the Station but they think the half castes want to elbow the blacks out. I have often talked to them especially Peter Campbell, about it and tried to make them believe differently, but my efforts were unavailing.

Some of this feeling was shared by the white staff, who thought that half-castes, being paler, should be better able to get by in the wider economy, and this attitude seemed to gain strength over the next fifty or sixty years. But by early in the next century, any antagonism between Aboriginal people had been submerged under the general need for survival.
John Howard Angas contacted Sutton in 1895 to see if he could organise a sizeable party of Aboriginal shearers for Angas’ station at Hill River near Clare. This arrangement was to continue for many years and was to provide a major source of employment and income for Ngarrindjeri men into the next century.
Up until the 1890s, regular weekly rations for Aboriginal people amounted to 10 lbs or more of flour per person, a similar amount of meat or ‘as required’, four pounds of sugar and a quarter pound of tea, with blankets, axes, pots and pans, thread, fishing lines and clothing as well, and tobacco for adults. The meat ration was suspended in 1897 except for the sick, elderly and infirm, and the wives and children of unemployed men. Attempts were made to increase fishing and supplement the meat ration in this way. Moves were afoot, however, to further reduce the amount of rations:
10th January 1896

Mr. W. E. Dalton

I beg to call your attention to the reduction of rations to the natives at this depot by the Aborigines Department, which approximately will mean an extra expence to the Association of 7 tons of flour, 1500 lbs of sugar, 375 lbs of tea, 350 lbs of soap, 16 lbs of tobacco, per year.

I am basing this calculation on the instructions I received from the Protector of Aborigines, viz., that when I sent requisitions for rations per month, I should only apply for the same amount every six weeks owing to a reduction in the estimates before Parliament of the Note to the Aborigines.

There is no diminution in the number of the Aborigines on the Station but the contrary I believe is the case. I have always been very careful in dispensing the rations and have frequently been grumbled at by the natives for being too careful. I do not know how I will get on if the reduction is insisted on.

Point McLeay 15th May 1896 Mr. W. E. Dalton Lamps The 3 lamps are hung in the Church and all that can be desired. Better light now than we have. 4 of the old lamps adorns the school room: 2 of the bracket lamps to be put up in the school dining room, & 2 for the reading room. … James Unaipon has been to me again to know if the Committee will buy his cottage; he wants the money, he says, to buy books for David to study Chemistry. David, who has gone in to the boot shop to learn the trade, I advised to work hard and get proficient and get a place in Adelaide; and then under efficient teachers, go in for study. It would be a waste of time for him to attempt such a big subject as Chemistry in order to get a living at, and I advised this to put him off. David wants to climb too high. Could you send him some Latin exercise books to satisfy him for the time. Yours faithfully, Tho. M. Sutton

Gov. Sir Thom. Fowell Buxton visited the Station in 1896. He told the Register (28.11.96) on his return:

Their writing in the copy books and so on seemed very clear and good. It is said that in an ordinary examination by a school inspector they showed as good results as do children in the average State School. The black ones are said to do as good as the half-castes.’
However, unrest simmered amongst the people. Many issues relating to the lack of employment, the perceived favoritism towards ‘blacks’ and a combination of assertion and resentment came to a head in early 1897, not without some incisive observations which give us a clue as to why no moves were ever made to place control of the mission in Aboriginal hands:
6th April 1897

Mr. W. E. Dalton

I have knocked off all the men, except 2 or 3. The milk man remains at reduced wages, the gardener on half time, the cook and baker and washerwoman also remain. The other work to be done by the men in turns for their rations. We had quite an exciting time yesterday morning: about 30 men mustered up in front of the study, not to solicit but to dictate. Had we told them to knock off and go play and feed them at the same time, it would not have caused any flutter; but because they are asked to do a little work for their rations, the[y] made a noise. Some of them were quite impudent, talked of us white people clearing off and giving them the land!!

It seems a hard matter to beat any common sense into them. It was quite marked that the majority of the men were half castes and quadroons, they had the most to say. They have never felt the prick of poverty and their conduct helped to kill any sympathy we ought to have for them. Mr. Redman brought back word that men were offered 3¹/2’ each for rabbits delivered at Tailem Bend. They should be forced out by some means.

Geo. Low told me the other day that a man can make a £ a week fishing. I feel stronger than ever that those young men especially half castes should be pushed out to shift for themselves.
But the AFA and Sutton had control of the purse-strings and could manipulate support:

11th May 1897 Mr. W. E. Dalton Old William Kropinyerie has asked me to write to you to see if the Committee would buy him a second-hand buggy or spring cart and he and his sons would refund the money in instalments. He has £ 3 in hand now towards it; he has a horse and harness. He would prefer this mode of conveyance sooner than a boat. W. Kropinyerie is one of the most deserving characters on the Mission, a good worker in the Church. He goes to the shearing sheds to conduct services there during the shearing. Of course, I know money is scarce but I believe the whole would be paid back at the latest, after shearing. I think £ 10 or £ 12 would buy one suitable for his requirements.

Sutton also complained to the Protector about the removal of children by their parents from the school. As he wrote: ‘I understand there was an Act in print giving control over all the Aborigines’ children, but it never passed the House.’ (4.6.1897) This could have been a forerunner to the legislation giving power to the Protector, as guardian, to remove children, drafted in 1908.

In October 1897, Redman resigned to work at Point Pearce, his position taken up by a Mr Lock. Just under forty years old at the time, Redman may have been dissatisfied with Sutton’s leadership and his resignation may have been the catalyst for Sutton’s dismissal a month later:
23rd Nov. 1897

Mr. W. E. Dalton

Hon. Secty, A.F.A.

I have received today a copy of the report to be presented to the General Committee of the Aborigines Friends’ Association by the sub-committee appointed to visit Point McLeay to inquire into matters generally,

I will send my formal reply as you request to reach you on the 30th inst., but I think it is only fair to me to allow me the opportunity of meeting the General Committee to defend myself.

This is the first intimation I have had during the four and a half years I have been here that the Committee were dissatisfied with my management. I am not going to plead to be allowed to retain my position as Superintendent but surely I have a right to the opportunity of defending myself. The intimation in the [380] report I understand is that I am to send in my resignation; at least the sub-committee intend to recommend that course to be taken. The only conditions I ask is, first, as I have already stated, an opportunity of defending myself before the General Committee.

Secondly, that I be not hurried away as I wish to look out for a house to take my goods to. The house my children occupy in E. Adelaide is too small. I wish to go to Adelaide to look out for a house. I will be glad if you will kindly reply by Friday’s mail.

Just one matter that I would like to refer to: the report that I objected to the Station being examined. My sole reason was that I considered it would lower my position in their opinion.

Sutton’s four and a half years were marked by a contradictory mixture of growth and stagnation: a new school and cottages were built, as well as more accommodation for the young men, the Library had been greatly expanded, the boot-shop had trained a number of young men and turned out many thousands of pairs of boots for the city and regional trade, a carpentry shop had been added in preparation for boat-building facilities; many acres had been put under fruit-trees, vines, and many other potentially productive crops. But as well, the outside economy and society had become much less friendly to Aboriginal people and Sutton was caught in between, still trying to impose his notions of order on an increasingly resentful and fractious population. Paradoxically, since the people had nowhere else but Point McLeay, he was the one who had to go.