Empowering destitute people towards transforming communities

3.3Outside-in missions as reconnecting people to employment

According to Rossi (1989:19) the vast majority of the destitute are unemployed and extremely poor. Furthermore, destitute people face numerous personal, logistical, and economic obstacles to obtaining employment, such as:

Lack of access to transportation (most widely cited issue);

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  Lack of education or competitive work skills (cited by most destitute people as a problem);
  
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  Family-related problems, including lack of day-care;
  
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  Mental illness, physical disabilities, and/or learning disabilities.
  

Other obstacles involve the social stigmas and stereotypes associated with destituteness and the disabilities of many destitute people, such as mental illness.

Various studies have shown that becoming “acculturated/ acclimatized” to a destitute lifestyle can create additional impediments to moving off the streets (Grigsby, Baumann, Gregorich & Roberts-Gray, 1990; Rowe & Wolch, 1990; Snow & Anderson, 1993). With respect to employment, Wenzel found that the length of time spent destitute was significantly and negatively associated with leaving an employment programme prematurely (Wenzel, 1992:62).
The job prospects of destitute people are also affected and often caused by changes in labour markets and industries that have disproportionately affected people who are less educated and less skilled (Hardin, 1996:51). The decline of blue-collar industries and their replacement with service-sector jobs, the globalization of the economy, the rapid pace of technological change, and the relocation of firms outside the boundaries of inner-cities have all erected additional barriers to employment, particularly for less-educated workers (Harrison & Bluestone, 1992; Holzer, 1996; Moss & Tilly, 1995).
According to Shlay & Rossi (1992:133) destitute people have become more isolated from the labour market than those who were considered destitute 30 or 40 years ago. Although most destitute people are not currently linked to the labour market, it would be a mistake to conclude that most of these people have never worked. However, although many destitute people have worked, the types of jobs they have typically held have not provided much income or security (Rossi, 1989:24).
Despite the substantial employment problems faced by destitute people, few programmes or projects have been developed or evaluated to address this need. Although there is much evidence that destitute people face problems finding and keeping jobs, particularly jobs that pay enough to allow them into housing, few programmes have been developed that explicitly focus on improving the job prospects of destitute people (Johnson & Cnaan, 1995; Whiting, 1994).
Working towards reconnecting destitute people to employment, we should consider the following (Rog & Holupka, 1998: 201-216)

3.3.1We need a comprehensive approach, involving housing and services

A comprehensive approach towards employment is necessary, particularly involving the provision of housing and services prior to or together with any employment effort. Programmes designed to employ people who are destitute, or were recently destitute, have used a variety of approaches, including job training, “transitional work programs,” and entrepreneurial efforts to create “affirmative enterprises” (Whiting, 1994:34). A consistent finding stemming from all of these types of efforts is the need to coordinate and combine employment services with other types of services and supports, particularly housing. Emerson and Twersky (1996:24) suggest that efforts to move the destitute into the mainstream must rest on “the three legs of a stool: housing, services, and jobs” (Emerson & Twersky, 1996).

Core services that need to be made available include: case management; assessment and employability development planning; alcohol and other substance abuse assessment and counselling; other support services (e.g., child care, transportation, mental health assessment/counselling, health services); job training services; job development and placement services; post-placement follow-up and support; and housing services (Rog et al., 1998:212).

3.3.2Job training and development efforts have shown mixed results

Although it is unfortunate that destitute people have not enjoyed access to traditional training programmes, equipping them for jobs, studies have generally established that most of these programmes only have a modest impact, at best, on their participants. A recent assessment of over thirty years of job training programmes arrived at the conclusion that “the results are very discouraging: thirty years of experimentation with job training programs have created a substantial number of programs whose benefits—for individuals in dire need of employment and economic independence—are quite trivial, and are completely inadequate to the task of moving them out of poverty, off of welfare, or into stable employment over the long run” (Grubb, 1995:88).

Speculating why such poor results have been obtained, Grubb (1995:89-91) identified a number of possible factors, such as: programmes that are too small and brief; too much emphasis on short-term results; the poor quality of many programmes; lack of follow-up and long-term support; poor matching of people with jobs; and possible lack of appropriate jobs in the labour market. Grubb’s recommendation is to create more comprehensive and coordinated employment-related services. Their goal would be to create an education and training “ladder” that people could access at any level, with “vertical” linkages so that they could move into a succession of more demanding, better paying jobs, instead of being limited to jobs that are often boring, low paying, and offer few prospects for advancement. One should note, though, that job development is inexpensive, useful and successful, but labour-intensive.

3.3.3Supported employment

Supported employment is based on the philosophy that individuals with disabilities can perform meaningful work in competitive settings if given support (Block, 1992; Drake, McHugo, Becker, Anthony, & Clark, 1996). The key characteristic of supported employment is that it assists an individual in obtaining and maintaining a job in the regular work force. The support includes assistance in obtaining a job, in training, and in staying on the job (Wehman & Kregel, 1985:9). The role of job coach is a central feature of supported employment.

3.3.4Developing affirmative businesses and in-house jobs offer market alternatives

Faced with problems placing people in “regular” jobs, more programmes are attempting to develop their own affirmative businesses and in-house opportunities. In recent years, a number of nonprofit organizations have started to develop business ventures for both disabled and non-disabled populations. According to a recent report from the Roberts Foundation (Emerson & Twersky, 1996:7-8), such organizations have begun businesses for several reasons:

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   Lack of mainstream employment and training programmes available to destitute people;
   
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   The difficulty the participants experienced obtaining employment in the competitive work force;
   
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   The interest of some organizations in becoming more self-supporting.
   

3.3.5Job turnover is common, and even after obtaining jobs, many people remain economically vulnerable

Even when people are successful obtaining jobs they are likely to remain economically vulnerable. A corollary of expecting high job turnover rates is also to expect that improvements in employment rates and income levels will not occur quickly, if at all.