Global Development
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- Survey of the Community College Vocational System in Spain
- The Spanish education system
- Previous education system social changes
- Current education system
- Initial vocational training
- Continuous vocational training
- Social guarantee programs
- One Vocational Training System
- Middle and Upper Secondary Education: Vocational Branch
- Conclusion: A comparison with the Community College System
- The Community College System of Thailand Allen Cissell, Ph.D. Tanom Inkhamnert, Ph.D. The community college system of Thailand, authorized in 2001 and begun in
2005 onwards As illustrated in the first part of this document, the role of FET colleges in fostering skills development has been embedded in the social and cultural development in South Africa, and also related to the economic growth and development path of the country that they seek to underpin in their role as public education and training providers. Mayer and Altman contextualizes the debate about the most appropriate skills development for South Africa by locating it within the economic development trajectory of both the apartheid (pre 1994) and democratic (post 1994) periods. They argue that ‘the economy’s inability to absorb unskilled and semi-skilled labor, particularly in the democratic period has created an unemployment crisis,’ and that the resolution of this crisis will be a policy imperative for the next decade. They believe it is therefore important that policies to foster skills development are aligned to this imperative. It is here that the role of FET colleges, at least in the education and training focus of skills development, becomes even more critical than before. They are after all public institutions that have a major role to play in providing intermediate to higher skills development, as recognized by both the Departments of Education and Labor. There are sound public policy reasons for investing in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in South Africa that will speak to developing both the wider unskilled and semi-skilled workforce but also responds directly and effectively to the specific needs of the economy. Private providers also form an important part in the delivery of TVET in South Africa. However, a strictly market-led approach in a country like South Africa with its history of limiting access to TVET for the majority of the population and also experiencing the pressures of having entered the global market poses dangers to this country. It is also true that if the public policy system and the public providers are not able to respond to the immediate and wider needs of the economy, it will result in more and more private education and training. It can be argued therefore that if the tension between public policy and economic arguments cannot be resolved and a balance sustained, it will result in public policy failure. This could lead to a public parking lot for learners not ready for the labor market. The point of departure for policy implementation should have been with the White Paper 4 on Further Education and Training. It provided a comprehensive policy framework identifying key leaders for systems change that should have ensured the effective integration of education and training where the supply side speaks to the demand side of the labor market and economic growth. In the single-mindedness of the focus of the DoE to utilize the Colleges Collaboration Fund to focus mainly on creating a new landscape of the FET colleges sector in the first 5 years, many other significant policy implementation areas such as curriculum reform and developing a funding strategy to drive the systems change, were placed on hold. This meant that little or no expression of those areas could happen and FET colleges were left to devise their own institutional arrangements to address delivery in a policy implementation vacuum. College Councils and Chief Executive Officers were tasked with areas of governance which again had to happen without any policy implementation framework. The other significant consequence was that in the focus on the restructuring of the new landscape, the paralysis that had become evident between the two departments (DoE and DoL) deepened which did not speak to the integration of education and training as intended, and a strong education supply side focus remained and grew in the DoE. However, over the past year the policy impetus has in many ways gone back to the key leaders of the White Paper. This is happening under the leadership of the Minister of Education and also because of the real pressure from the demand side in terms of wanting the Department of Education and its providers to prove that they can deliver on being responsive to the economic growth of the country. The government’s recapitalization of FET colleges strategy to the tune of R1,9 billion over the next 3 years (2006 – 2008) is an important show of commitment to put action to policy implementation. Modernizing the national DoE curriculum, a process started in 2005 as part of the recapitalization strategy, through a systematic review and development process is a significant and necessary move. The impetus is correct in responding to the critical skills shortage in SA at the artisan and technical level, and developing programs and curriculum that would speak to the wider apprenticeships developing artisans for the 21st century. However, all of this must be set within the context of the continuous changes faced by employers in response to technological innovations, global competitiveness, productivity issues and structural changes within different sectors of the economy. The organization of work and the development and honing of skills against the economic realities of continuous changes demands a dynamic approach to the review of education and training programs. The process and approach to review and update college programs must also accept that this must be continuous and dynamic. Shaping the learning pathways for the 21st century artisan from an educational rather than an integrated supply and demand side perspective is dangerous. Not including government and business as employers in the design of these pathways can lead to further ‘unemployable’ potential entrants to the labor market. It does not provide sufficient engagement that could draw on the vibrant policy debate and implementation that the state, employers and organized labor have been participating in. The development of these programs is one key to the continuing transformation of FET colleges. Their relevance depends on the provision of programs that meet the needs of learners, the labor market that will employ these learners, and the communities they serve within the wider economic demands. If this is not the focus, it could lead to a pool of ‘qualified’ learners that will still not be recruited into the labor market. As a result of the initial partnerships established in the Mining and Steel sectors, as well as exploring a potential partnership in the Construction Industry, another significant step towards the achievement of a modern and responsive FET colleges sector came in the form of an understanding reached between the Minister of Education and a number of prominent business leaders at the end of 2005. A concept proposal for a joint business-government initiative for College Excellence and Priority Skills Acquisition (CEPSA) was developed. The initiative will mobilize business leadership and company support to develop centers of technical and vocational excellence, within the framework of government’s recapitalization of the FET colleges sector. CEPSA will also make a contribution to the delivery of the Joint Initiative for Priority Skills Acquisition (JIPSA) launched on 27 March and led by the Deputy President of South Africa in support of the government’s Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa (ASGISA). In the words of the Minister of Education on 7 November 2005, a responsive FET Colleges system for South Africa should ‘be ready to equip youth and adults to meet the economic and social needs of the 21st century, provide relevant further education and training that speak to the needs of industry and communities, focus on the job creation and skills agenda that are key to SA’s future success, support a massive and rapid growth in intermediate skills’. This then speaks to further education for school leavers and adults, community and socio-economic development, technical, vocational and career skills development. The relationship between business and society in South Africa is also relevant here. Business sees itself as part of society, not separate from it. It seeks to operate in a society which is stable and prosperous. Business therefore sees the need for shared growth and social inclusion. It recognizes that employees are also citizens, parents and human beings with talents and abilities that should be developed; sincere recognition of its role as a responsible corporate citizen is growing and being acted upon. Business naturally has a particularly direct interest in vocational technical career education. It also wants colleges to play a role in further education and community development and sees colleges providing the underpinning knowledge and structured learning in skills development. It is also true that by definition successful vocational end technical education requires the engagement of business. If the above rings true, then the basis for a meaningful relationship between business and the FET colleges sector must give recognition to business as part of society and as such to have legitimate interests and a legitimate role. Because business understands that it is not the whole of society, the engagement therefore needs to focus most directly on those aspects in education and training where business has a contribution to make. Business also has a broader interest in education and training in so far as it contributes to a sustainable and economically successful society.
Early learnings that have come from the current colleges-industry partnerships indicate that there is real value to be found in a partnership between companies and FET colleges. It is important that parties to the partnership need to be prepared to learn and move beyond entrenched stereotypes. A very significant lesson teaches that the space for critical dialogue and exchange of perspectives between parties has to be consciously constructed and directed, recognizing the complexity of the issues at hand, the roles, responsibilities and interests of the parties, fitness for purpose as a guiding principle for the design and delivery of FET college programs. Systemic, sustainable change has to be framed within its context. In conclusion, through a real engagement between government, business and other partners, it is believed that responsive FET colleges delivering to the real needs in South Africa can be created. The colleges will recognize the interdependence of education and training, and work. They are based on a broad understanding of relationships between education and training, and work and require specific knowledge of particular aspects of work requirements and of education and skills development. They depend upon a systematic and open engagement aimed at producing learning programs and qualifications which are fit for purpose - relevant to the learner, educationally responsible and responsive to the economy. They are comfortable with institutional arrangements that are open and responsive.
Under apartheid, education had been a key instrument of subjugation against an oppressed majority; and a key site of mass resistance against the apartheid regime. With the election of a new, democratic government in 1994, it was to be expected that education policy reform should become a national priority. At the same time, the boundaries of education policy reform and system change were established by the terms of South Africa’s political settlement. It has been argued by one influential critic in South Africa that a consequence of this was a government emphasis on ‘symbolic’ rather than substantive reform (Jansen, ). (Kraak argues for partial reform…Certainly, one of the themes of the immediate post-apartheid period was the rapid development of education policy, accompanied by significant lags and delays in policy implementation. A further consequence of this period of major social and political transition in South Africa was the often piecemeal, haphazard and contradictory implementation of policy, coupled with the stubborn if often unrecognized persistence of education discourses from the struggle era – and from the apartheid education bureaucracy.133 As the political pressures become stronger, it is believed that the real driver for education and training reform is going to come from the need for accelerated and shared economic growth in South Africa. Government has shown great commitment in its willingness to pay more, but it is still not clear that FET colleges under the DoE will produce what is needed by the economic growth. It is expected that due to the political and economic pressures a real shake-out will lead to the promotion of those institutions that are willing and able to deliver on the economic imperatives, also speaking to the unemployment and poverty challenges of the country. This will include a pool of public, private and also corporate providers of education and training – a competitive environment which FET colleges have become parts of and where the demand will dictate. It is here that the development of sustainable relationships with employers and co-operative agreements with private and corporate providers may provide the vehicle for real engagement towards relevance and responsiveness in the next decade of democracy in South Africa. References Chisholm, 1984 Department of National Education (DNE) 1991 Education Renewal Strategy: Discussion Document. Pretoria Fisher, Glen 1993 Access to post-secondary education in South Africa: taking the community college route. National Education Policy Investigation Working Paper. Fisher, Glen, Ros Jaff, Lesley Powell and Graham Hall 2003 Public Further Education and Training Colleges, in Human Resources Development Review 2003, Cape Town, Human Sciences Research Council, 326 - 351 Groener, Zelda 1998 Political roots of the debate about the integration of education and training. In Morrow, Wally and Kenneth King (eds), Vision and Reality: Changing Education and Training in South Africa. Cape Town, University of Cape Town Press, 86-95 Jansen, Jonathan King, Kenneth 1998 Policy coherence in education, training and enterprise development in South Africa: the implementation challenge of new policies. In Morrow, Wally and Kenneth King (eds), Vision and Reality: Changing Education and Training in South Africa. Cape Town, University of Cape Town Press, 4-19 Kraak Levin, Richard 1991 People’s education and the struggle for democracy in South Africa, in Unterhalter et al (eds) Apartheid Education and Popular Struggles. Ravan, Johannesburg, 117-130 Levy, Norman 1991 Matching education with employment: targeting the black labor force. In Unterhalter, Elaine, Harold Wolpe, Thozamile Botha, Saleem Badat, Thulisile Dlamini, Benito Khotseng (eds), Apartheid Education and Popular Struggles. Ravan, Johannesburg, 19-34 Malherbe, E.G. 1977 Education in South Africa Volume II: 1923 – 1975. Juta, Cape Town Ministry of Education 1998 A Programme for the Transformation of Further Education and Training. Government Gazette No. 19281, 25 September. Pretoria National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI) 1993a Education planning, systems and structure. Oxford University Press/NECC, Cape Town - Human Resources Development Post-secondary education National Institute for Community Education (NICE) 1995 Community Education in South Africa: Conference Report. Creative Associates International Strydom, A.H., E.M. Bitzer and L.O.K. Lategan 1995 Community Colleges for South Africa. Bloemfontein, University of the Orange Free State Swainson, Nicola 1991 Corporate intervention in education and training, 1960-89. In Unterhalter et al, Apartheid Education and Popular Struggles. Ravan, Johannesburg, 95-115
David Roldán Martínez María Esther del Moral-Pérez
Spain is located in the South-West of Europe and includes most of the Iberic Peninsula, the Balear Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands (of the African Coast) and Ceuta as well as Melilla, cities in the northern part of Africa. During the last years of the 1970’s, Spain suffered a major political, social and economical change caused by the transition of a dictatorial regime into a democratic one. In the Spanish Constitution, issued by Spanish Parliament in 1978134, the Spanish State was constituted as a parliamentary monarchy. As Article 137 of the Constitution states, from a territorial point of view Spain is organized into municipalities, provinces (50) and autonomous communities (17 plus the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla). The number of inhabitants in Spain in 2004 was 42,935,001. The mainland accounts for 85% of the total land area, 505,990 km2. The autonomous communities and map of Spain are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The administrative structure of the Spanish State (Source: http://www2.trainingvillage.gr).
1.) Decentralization in the area of education Spain is witnessing a gradual process of decentralization of power coming from a central government in favor of more autonomous communities and regional governments in educational matters. Until this process is finalized, it will be necessary to make a distinction between autonomous communities having full authority in education and those that remain under central government control (to be concrete, under the Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, MEC). 2.) Decentralization of the vocational training system The vocational training system is affected by this trend of decentralization as well. Law 19 of 9 June 1997 established the creation of the General Council for Vocational Training (the Consejo General de Formación Profesional) and gave the autonomous communities full control of the new national vocational training plan, together with the central government and social partners. The main objective of the Council is to create a national system of vocational qualifications, although some autonomous communities have created their own vocational training councils. 3.) Decentralization in matters of occupational training. Occupational training refers to the training of unemployed people and it is being decentralized as well. In this case, the social partners and other bodies of the public and private sectors are also involved in the training.
Until the 4th of October 1990, when LOGSE (Ley de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo) became a reality, the Spanish education system was under regulations as dictated by the 1970 laws. The reform introduced by LOGSE involved changes in the whole education system and, thus, was being introduced gradually and completed by the 2002/03 Academic Year. This new system is well adapted to the social, technological, economic, political and cultural changes that took place in Spain during the two last decades of the twentieth century. These changes rendered the previous education system to become obsolete. At the same time there was a need to integrate the education system into the European Union guidelines, so that the Spanish population would not find themselves disadvantaged compared to other citizens of the European Union (formerly known as the European Community) in terms of mobilization. The current education system, put into place by LOGSE, is based on the British education system. Previous education system & social changes The new education system had to function within the old education system until the 2002/2003 Academic Year. To understand the changes made, we will need to describe the old system briefly. The General Law on Education (Ley General de la Educación, LGE) of 1970 stated the basic general education (Educación General Básica, EGB) for students aged between 6 and 14. However, the lack of funds caused it to be not put into action until the 1980’s. At the Secondary Education level, there were two options for students continuing their education after completing their EGB: the vocational training level I or the unified baccalaureate (Bachillerato Unificado y Polivante, or BUP). After BUP, students had to take a pre-university course (Curso de Orientación Universitaria, COU) in order to continue to the university or to the Level II of Vocational Education. The LGE law also regulated the adult education and offered those who weren’t able to complete their schooling, a special education program in arts and languages. This program is similar to a literacy program (certificado de escolaridad) and is completed with a certificate. After 1970 Spain underwent major social and political changes. This has entailed transformations in all spheres of life (social, political, economical, etc.) and logically, changes in the education system. In parallel with those political changes, the Spanish society has also gradually evolved into a democracy. The integration of women in the labour market, the decline in the birth rate, the increase of the population living in large urban centers and the increase in the number of immigrations are but a few symptoms of that change. During this same period, Spain joined NATO (1984) and the European Community (1985). These political and social changes occurring during the last years of the1970’s, required the development of yet another education system. To accomplish the new objectives, several laws were defined, as we will explain in the following paragraph.
The structure of the current education system is regulated by the LOGSE and the LOU. The Organic Act on the General Organization of the Education System (LOGSE) of 1990 takes a gradual approach towards reform and establishes a calendar for implementing the new legislation at the same time as the parallel extinction of the older forms of education. The Organic Act on Universities (LOU) of 2001 in turn structures university level into tree cycles, maintaining the organization established by the LRU. Figure 2 below shows the structure of the education system as proposed by LOGSE: Figure 2. The current Education System as proposed by LOGSE. At the basis of this new system (LOGSE) is the compulsory education, which was extended up to the age of 16, dividing this period into two parts: Primary (6-12) and Secondary (12-16) Education. At the same time extinguishing the existence of Special Schools for disabled students and giving them access to the regular education system. The LOU created higher access to the university for economically disadvantaged students by raising the funds of university programs. Another interesting comment may be that the cultural and linguistic connections between Spain and the Latin American countries made its educational laws a model for the reform of education in that part of the world. Therefore similar characteristics may be observed in the education system as used in those countries, assembled in MERCOSUR and sometimes financed by the World Bank. Some common objectives are to extend the obligatory education and to adapt the professional education to the new economy and the current needs of business & industry. Primary education Primary Education (Educación Primaria) is broken down into three two-year cycles corresponding to the age groups of 6 – 8 years, 8 - 10 years and 10 to 12 years old. The principal goal is to provide all children with a basic education enabling them to acquire some basic skills and capabilities. Secondary education The Secondary School (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria, ESO) divides the group of 12 -16 years of age into two cycles of two years each. The objective is to build on the skills and capabilities acquired during primary education and to create a basis to start working in any of the EU countries. In addition to this, the Secondary Education includes some other programs that aren’t compulsory such as the social guarantee programs. Social guarantee programs are an alternative available to students aged between 16 and 21 who haven’t successfully obtained a Secondary School Certificate and who also have no vocational training qualifications. We will explore these programs in more depth in one of the next sections.
The Baccalaureate course (Bachillerato) lasts for two years and begins upon completion of the Compulsory Secondary Education. The objective is for students to mature in both intellectual and human terms and to equip them with the knowledge and skills needed to perform well in their social life. On the other hand, this course helps to decide which of the various routes to follow in order to obtain a vocational qualification or a university degree. The Baccalaureate is organized into four streams, each of which is linked to a specific university career. Middle and higher level of Vocational Education The middle level of Vocational Education (F.P.E. Grado Medio) lasts for one to two years and is designed to guide the students in their transition from school to the workforce. In addition, it is a way to provide continuing training for those already employed in different specialist areas. The higher level of Vocational Education (F.P.E. Grado Superior) also prepares young people for the workforce and at the same time provides access to the university courses. It lasts for one to two years.
One of the specialist programs worth mentioning are the art programs, designed to train and qualify young people who wish to center their professional careers on music, acting, or art and design. The University System The Spanish university system (LOU) covers both public and private universities (run either by secular or religious bodies). This law gives the university complete autonomy on which academic courses to offer. Students need to do an entrance exam after completing the Bachillerato and based on their average grades get access to certain programs. Another European development that is worth mentioning is the portability of credentials and the ongoing international discussion about the professional mobility between the EU. An interesting website to visit in this context is the website of the European Association for International Education: http://www.eaie.org. The Vocational education system With the approval in 1993 of the national Vocational Education program and the development of the National Vocational Training Program (NVTP, created in 1986) during 1998 to 2002, vocational education underwent a drastic change. This revolution had the intention to develop an integrated vocational training system in order to make companies more competitive and to deliver highly qualified workers. The NTVP divides the Vocational Education System into the following three main subsystems: 1.) Initial/regulated vocational training (IVT) Targeted mainly to young people, although it is also available to adults, the objective is to provide basic professional education and training. For the purpose of decentralization LOGSE appointed the responsibility of all vocational education to the autonomous communities. Programs may vary according to the local needs of business & industry and to the educational needs, defined by the specific culture and language of each region. 2) Occupational training (OCT) OCT is created for unemployed people and it is regulated under the Royal Decree 631 of the 3rd of May 1993. The objective is to help students to become capable workers and reintegrate into the workforce by providing them with certain occupational skills and competencies, certifying them at the same time to continue their education and acquire the appropriate academic titles afterwards. 3) Continuous vocational training (CVT) The target group of CVT is employed workers. Thus, their training is the responsibility of the employer and their social partners (being the unions and branch organizations). In order to integrate the above mentioned, three subsystems of vocational training, NVTP established, in collaboration with the autonomous communities, a national system of vocational qualifications that permits lifelong learning and ensures optimum management of issues relating to the qualification of vocational education. To do so, it created the National Qualifications Institute (Instituto Nacional de las Cualificaciones), which is in charge of developing a common standard for all forms of vocational training. Thus common benchmarks of competencies, based on the realities of the economy, can be defined and makes it possible to give the same qualification to occupational skills acquired by different means and courses. This can’t be done without the definition of two key elements: a catalogue of training modules linked to the qualification system and a network of training centers offering courses leading up to those qualifications. This new national vocational training program sets out five additional objectives:
Initial vocational training Before getting into a description of the initial vocational training program, it should be noted that traditionally in Spain, it was a common belief that students opting for vocational training instead of a general education, did so because they weren’t smart enough to study and to obtain an academic degree. Thus, it was essential to reform the system in order to improve the social acceptance and to provide the students with the appropriate vocational qualifications needed to guarantee their employability. As we stated before, initial vocational training (IVT) is ruled by LOGSE and it is structured in two cycles: first, the Lower Level of Initial Vocational Education (Ciclos Formativos de Grado Medio, CFGM), accessible after passing the compulsory secondary education; and second, the Higher Level Vocational Education (Ciclos Formativos de Grado Superior, CFGS), accessible after passing the Baccalaureate. Beside those two tracks, students that haven’t passed the compulsory Secondary Education can continue their formation through the Social Guarantee Programs (Programas de Garantía Social, PGS). The objective of the IVT is to prepare trainees to further develop their job competencies into a higher level and to offer training for those occupations in demand by the industry & business market. Achieving these objectives requires to carry out a detailed investigation and to identify training needs at any given time or in any social and economic situation in order to be able to create new qualifications or to update existing ones. Continuous vocational training Continuous vocational training is the part of Vocational Education targeted at employed workers. To manage this type of vocational training the Foundation for Continuous Training (Fundación para la Formación Continua, FORCEM) has been formed. There are also some public sector initiatives with a similar aim but on a much smaller scale. Continuous Training exists of all the formative actions carried out by companies, employed workers themselves or other organizations (unions and branch organizations) whose objectives are both the improvement of competencies and qualifications of the work force. The main benefit is the advancement of the company’s competitive level but also the increase of the employee’s chances for social and occupational advancement. In fact, surveys carried out by FORCEM to evaluate the benefits of continuous training, confirm this. For example, an analysis provided during 1996 shows that 89.7 % of the workers surveyed, believe that the training given helped them to improve their work performance. At the same time, 60 % believed that their prospects of career advancement had been enhanced or enhanced significantly. There are three initiatives that should be mentioned related to Continuous Vocational Training:
Training plans are a means to deliver education and training to workers. Depending on the scope and the framework of the training plan, it is possible to distinguish different types of training plans.
Occupational training Occupational Training is targeted to unemployed people with greater difficulty of finding a job and its objective is to facilitate the professional integration and reintegration of individuals seeking work. This kind of training can be provided by both public and private institutions. In Spain occupational training is carried out through the vocational training and employment plan (Plan de Formación e Inserción Profesional, FIP) together with a whole range of training courses aimed at the unemployed. Although the main target groups are divided into people under 25 years of age and people over 25 years of age, there are also courses for certain groups with specific needs. In addition, there are training courses that help to assure high quality levels of training. Obviously, to accomplish these objectives it is necessary to have a set of education centers in place that cooperate in the provision of all occupational training. All training is offered under a contract program or cooperation agreement with the corresponding authority. Occupational training courses require personal attendance or can utilize distance learning. It can be broadbased (to provide young people with more general knowledge and skills), occupational, transformational or specialized by character. One important issue related to these courses is the selection of the candidates. This selecting is carried out in two stages. First; the provincial responsible party of INEM makes a preliminary selection and, secondly, the definitive selection takes place under the supervision of the responsible party that will be providing the training course. The completion of any occupational training leads to a certificate of occupational competency specifying the occupational profile, the theoretical and practical content of the training course(s) as completed, the training route, the total duration of the training, the training objectives and the evaluation criteria. Social guarantee programs Social guarantee programs are included within the program of the Initial Vocational Education; however they are worth explaining separately. LOGSE excludes the students not having passed Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) and these programs offer this group an opportunity to reach the end of Secondary Education in a different way. Thus overcoming this deficit of initial training and giving them access to other programs of vocational education, normally reserved for those students that have passed the compulsory Secondary Education program (ESO). On completion of this program, the student is awarded an academic certificate issued by the training center together with a certificate of occupational competency issued by the provincial authority. One Vocational Training System Then the 2002 Organic Act on Qualifications and Vocational Training (LOCPF) came into place with the purpose of re-organizing the existing Vocational Training (IVT, OCT and CVT) into one single system. This new Organic Act set up the National System on Qualifications and Vocational Training with the aim of: preparing to carry out professional activities, promoting an educational offer of quality, which is updated and fitting the different people to whom it is addressed, taking into account the qualification needs as required by the labor market. It also aims at providing information and counseling regarding Vocational Training for those interested in it, as well as qualifications to find employment; including preparing people to carry out business activities on their own account with the goal of encouraging business initiatives and an enterprise spirit. Additional goals are: the official evaluation and validation of professional qualifications, the promotion of public and private investment in the qualification of workers, as well as the effective use of Vocational Training resources. The ‘Catálogo Nacional de Cualificaciones Profesionales’ (National Catalogue on Vocational Qualifications) became the institutional head of the system. Its aim is to facilitate integration and adequacy between Vocational Training and the labor market, as well as lifelong learning, workers’ mobility and labor market unity. This catalogue, applicable nation-wide, contains the qualifications recognized by the productive system and the training related to them, which is organized in training ‘módulos’ gathered in a ‘Catálogo Modular de Formación Profesional’ (Modular Catalogue for Vocational Training). The schedule for implementing the new arrangements for education stipulated that this kind of schooling was to be phased in progressively and was fully implemented in the school year 2002-2003. Middle and Upper Secondary Education: Vocational Branch Intermediate Specific Vocational Training may be provided in establishments exclusively devoted to teaching Specific Vocational Training, or in establishments that teach other stages. The most frequent case is that this education is offered along with Educación Secundaria Obligatoria and the Baccalaureate in establishments that in the majority of Autonomous Communities are known as Institutes of Secondary Education. Intermediate Specific Vocational Training is taken by student over 16 years old. The duration varies depending on the ‘ciclo formativo’ (Education cycles from 1300 to 2000 hours, distributed over one and a half or two school years, the one and a half-year cycle being the most common). Intermediate Specific Vocational Training consists of ‘ciclos formativos’ broken down into different occupational families. At the moment there are 22 occupational families and 64 intermediate specific "ciclos formativos". Examples of these families and ‘ciclos formativos’ are:
Challenges A SWOT analysis of the LOGSE system: Strengths
In Secondary Education of the previous system, there was an option for students who were not interested or intellectually challenged to study, to follow a Vocational Training system, starting at age 14 (the end of mandatory education). These days they have to stay in the Secondary Education until the age of 16, passing from one grade to the next, not being challenged or motivated and holding up students who can handle a faster pace. In the previous system of F.P. or Vocational Education, students were not required to take an entrance exam to go from a Lower Level of Vocational Education into a Higher Level of Vocational Education and could easily make the transfer from one level into the next. With the new and current system in place an entrance exam is required to enter into the F.P.E. del Segundo Grado and this entrance exam is based on the courses and content as taught in the Baccalaureate. Therefore very few students coming from a lower level of vocational education can pass the exam and are forced to enter the labor market at this point, cutting off their options to continue their professional education and to obtain a degree. One of the other challenges that Spain is facing is related to their geographic location and the stream of immigrants entering the country from the South. In addition to this increase in immigration, there is a decline in the natural growth of the Spanish population. From the eighties, Spain has had more immigrants than emigrants, a turnaround in the situation prevailing until then. In 2003, more than 1,600,000 immigrants were living in Spain, a 24.4% more than in 2002. Nowadays, the number of legal foreigners exceeds 2 million people, which represents almost 8% of the Spanish population. The immigrant flow has increased considerably over the last few years, and therefore, the education system has to pay attention to new foreign students and also to immigrant children who are already second-generation citizens in the country. This situation calls for new attitudes, policies and actions on the part of all players in the world of education: policy-makers, researchers, teachers and other professionals. Other European countries have already experienced or are currently facing similar situations and therefore, have developed and applied the necessary measures to respond to the new needs and questions raised by immigration within the field of education. The graphic below indicates the increasing number of immigrants, participating in the Social Guarantee Programs in Spain. 
Conclusion: A comparison with the Community College System In the context of this survey, the Community College system of the United States would include the following Spanish forms of education: the Middle and Higher level of Vocational Training, the Baccalaureate, and the first two years of some university programs including all adult and professional training. But it’s trying to compare apples and oranges to try to make a clear comparison between the two education systems. And therefore we decided that our conclusion should be that there is no comparison. For example, part of the Formación Profesional de Manises, a suburb of Valencia, consists of only two courses (in computer technology), using a few classrooms in the building of a Secondary Education Institute with a total of no more then 35-40 adult students. Then there are two colleges in Valencia itself for technology programs: one is the Instituto Politécnico (Higher Vocational Education) and second the Universidad Politécnica (University level). Both offer similar courses and programs but at a different level. Both train professionals already in the workforce and have strong connections with the business & industry of Valencia. The Baccalaureate Courses, that prepare for university access and / or higher vocational education access can be taught at a Secondary Education Institute (ESO and comparable to a High School) or in a separate building / institute where also other vocational training courses are offered. Many of the courses and professional training as offered in the single US Community College system are offered in different institutes by tradition or organized by their specific financial resources & funding, targeting a group with specific educational needs. Data of some colleges in the city of Valencia and its region: Universidad Politécnica de Valencia: http://www.upv.es/menuc.html
7 engineer programs Architecture Art Programs Biotechnology Business Administration Public Administration The post-graduate programs are as follows: 34 Masters Programs 39 Doctorate Programs & Specialties 17 Professional Training Courses 837 Non-credit Courses 226 ‘On-demand’ Courses Florida, Centro de Formación Universitaria y Secundaria http://www.florida-uni.es/web_en/corp_home
For more information on the Formación Profesional de Manises, go to: http://www.educaweb.com/ and look for institutes of Formación Profesional in the area of Valencia. List of Abbreviations INEM: Instituto Nacional de Empleo / National Institute of Employment MEC: Ministerio de Educación y Cultura / Ministry of Education & Culture LOGSE: Ley de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo / General Law of the Education System (4th of October 1990) LOU: Ley Orgánica de Universidad (2001) / General University Law LGE: Ley General de la Educación / General Law on Education (1970) EGB: Educación General Básica / Basic General Education EU: European Union (former European Community) BUP: Bachillerato Unificado y Polivante / Unified Baccalaureate COU: Curso de Orientación Universitaria / Pre-University Course ESO: Educación Secundaria Obligatoria / Compulsory Secondary Education LRU: Ley de Reforma Universitaria / The Law on University Reform (1983) NVTP: Programa Nacional de Formación Profesional / National Vocational Training Program IVT: Formación Profesional Initial Reglada / Initial, regulated Vocational Training OCT: Formación Ocupational / Occupational Training CVT: Formación Contínua / Continuous Vocational Training EFQM: European Foundation for Quality Management PGS: Programas de Garantía Social / Social Guarantee Programs FORCEM: Fundación para la Formación Continua / Foundation for Continuous Training FIP: Plan de Formación e Inserción Profesional / Vocational Training and Employment plan ESO: Educación Secundaria Obligatoria / Compulsory Secondary Education References Béduwé, C.and Germe, JF. (2004). Raising the Levels of Education in France: From Growth to Stabilisation. European Journal of Education, vol. 39, nr. 1, pp. 119-132. Béduwé, C. and Planas, J. (2003). Education expansion and labour market. Luxembourg, CEDEFOP-Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Online: http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Projects_Networks/ResearchLab/ Björnavold, J. (1998a). Évaluation des acquis non formels: qualité et limites des méthodologies. Revue Européenne de Formation Professionnelle, nr. 12. Björnavold, J. (1998b). Une question de foi? Les méthodes et les systèmes d’évaluation des acquis non formels exigent des bases légitimes. Revue Européenne de Formation Professionnelle, nr. 12. Castells, M. (1996). The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Volume I: The Rise of the Network Society. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Cambridge. CGFP (Consejo General de Formación Profesional) (2000). Nuevo programa Nacional de Formación Profesional. Published by the Consejo General de la Formación Profesional. Madrid. Descy, P. and Tessaring, M. (2001). Training and learning for competence. Luxembourg: CEDEFOP-Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Esin Consultores (2001). Vocational education and training in Spain. European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, Merino, R. (2005). 16-19. Transiciones de los jóvenes después de la escuela obligatoria. Avance de resultados. Plan Nacional I+D+I (2003 contest). GRET-UAB. Köhler, C. (1994): Existe un modelo de producción español? Sistema de trabajo y estructura social en comparación internacional. Sociología del Trabajo, nr. 20, pp. 3-31. Parellada, M., Saez, F., Sanromà, E. and Torres, C. (1999). La formación continua en las empresas españolas y el papel de las universidades. Biblioteca Civitas Economía y Empresa. Peraita, C. (2000). Características de la formación en la empresa española. Papeles de Economía Española. 80, pp. 295-307. Planas, J. and Rifa, J. (eds.) (2003). Consolidación y desarrollo de la formación continua en España. Madrid: Fundación Tripartita. Planas, J., Sala, G. and Vivas, J. (2003). Escenarios de futuro para la educación en España. Revista de Educación (Madrid), nr. 332 V, pp. 445 - 461. Planas, J., Sala, G. and Vivas, J. (2004). Nuevas estrategias formativas ante el fin de la expansión educativa en España" Rev. Educ. (Madrid), nr. 333, v. 1, pp. 237-257. Bulletin CIDE de temas educativos, Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia Centro de Investigación y Documentación Educativa, Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte EURYBASE, the EURYDICE Information Database on Education Systems in Europe The Community College System of Thailand Allen Cissell, Ph.D. Tanom Inkhamnert, Ph.D. The community college system of Thailand, authorized in 2001 and begun in 2002, is, by any measure, a huge success. Opening with 10 colleges in that year, and now expanded to 18, these colleges now enroll over 16,000 regular associate degree students, over 35,000 part-time students, and, by virtue of the college’s deliberate location in the rural areas, provide higher education to many who never had access before. The national budget for these colleges has increased from 50 million baht ($1.25 million) per year to 308 million baht, an increase of 600% in 4 years. Additionally, the colleges are promoting local control and governance, a true departure from the tradition of central ministry control. For these reasons, and more, the community colleges are very popular and a matter of pride in the communities in which they are located. In four years, they have made truly impressive gains for the 61 million people of Thailand. Yüklə 1,63 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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