Introduction to cultural heritage management
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- National and Provincial Heroes Acres
- Cultural Landscapes Ziwa/Nyanga Terraces
- Sites of Human Evolution VALUES ATTACHED TO HERITAGE FORMS (Zimbabwean Context)
- Stakeholders to cultural heritage in Zimbabwe; Primary stakeholders
- Secondary stakeholders
- National Parks and Wildlife Authority
- Private Corporations/Persons
- VALUES AT CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES
- Climatologists
- Political/National Value
- STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR VALUES
- FACTORS INFLUENCING CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT
- SYSTEMS OF HERITAGE MANAGEMENT Informal System
- Great Zimbabwe: A Case study on Informal Management
Liberation War Heritage The rise of Nationalism in Zimbabwe can be traced back to the 1950s where several nationalist parties were formed. Although the settler government tried by all means to quash this through imprisonment of political activists, the most prominent became ZANU and PF ZAPU. Several prisons were constructed primarily for these activists. Gonakudzingwa This was the remotest prison built primarily for the PF ZAPU activists. It was located in the now, Gonarezhou National Park. The nearest habited place was 60 km away. The prisoners were not primarily guarded as the case with modern prisons but were kept in by the fact that they were in a wild jungle with all sorts of carnivorous animals. Today only decayed posts mark the foundations of the tin huts which were the homes for the prisoners. Sikombela This was a prison built primarily for the ZANU political Activists. It was located approximately 5 km after the turnoff to Gokwe along the Gweru-Harare highway. Unlike Gonakudzingwa, the prisoners at Sikombela had interactions with nearby villagers but still, they were isolated from active politics. Today, only evidence of hut foundations mark positions of huts that once resembled the most terrifying prisons in colonial Zimbabwe. Chimoio and Nyadzonya Political activities outside the borders of Zimbabwe were concentrated in Mozambique and Zambia. This was mostly because the politics of these two nations advocated for socialism rather than capitalism. The most famous camps used for the training of guerillas were Chimoio and Nyadzonya, later bombed consecutively resulting in massive causalities. Because of circumstances, state of the deceased and resource constraints the deceased were buried in mass graves. These sites therefore represent the saddest time of the liberation war and are accordingly recognized as National Monuments of Zimbabwe although falling outside Zimbabwe. Chinhoyi Battle site This site, located approximately a kilometer west of Chinhoyi Provincial Heroes Acre was the site for the first battle marking the beginning of the Second Chimurenga. The battle that ensured there was not supposed to have taken place since this group of seven guerillas (the first to be deployed back into Zimbabwe), were ambushed as they made their way past present day Chinhoyi.This battle bring a lot of emotion to locals of the area hence is also a best kept secret. Nobody is willing to disclose exactly why it all happened. These men fought bravely but because they were outnumbered and out-resourced, they all perished. The custodian of the Heroes Acre recounts the bravery of this group which enabled theM to wade off an attack that lasted several hours. The European army lost a helicopter, whose remains are in the Heroes Acre’s Site museum National and Provincial Heroes Acres These sites are designated burial places for those individuals argued by the government task unit to have contributed immensely to the liberation and independence of Zimbabwe. The deliberations by the responsible authority accords the National Hero/Heroine or Provincial Hero/Heroine Status which leads to one being interred at the National Heroes Acre or the Provincial Heroes Acres respectively. These sites fall under the jurisdiction of NMMZ. The first hero at Heroes Acre was Cde J.M. Tongogara (reburied there on August 11) hence the reason why Heroes Day on August 11. Cultural Landscapes Ziwa/Nyanga Terraces The Nyanga area, making part of the Eastern Highlands, is geographically a difficult place to establish settlement based on agriculture. This obstacle was however overcome by the Ziwa community which terraced the landscape for settlement and agriculture. Numerous reasons for them favoring this difficult terrain have been propounded but the most prevalent was that, they were escaping persecution hence chose the area for its defensive advantages. To date, this community is ranked as one of the most impressive. Evidence of the terraces is still there and this culture of terracing is still evident of remote rural areas of Nyanga such as Nyakomba, communities along the Gairezi River and in Nyamaropa. Sites of Human Evolution VALUES ATTACHED TO HERITAGE FORMS (Zimbabwean Context) In all instances involving cultural property, it must be acknowledged that there existed an intrinsic relationship between man and nature, an attribute sanctioned by tradition. As such, all sites had different values then and now. Values, in relation to cultural heritage, refer to a stake, interest or concern that is placed upon a site and these differ depending on the person, group or organization. As such, a site could have many values and stakeholders at the same time whilst another may only have two stakeholders. The stakeholders however can also be distinguished basing on the nature of stake (historical, economic, political etc), level of participation (active or passive), and influence at the site (legal or traditional). Stakeholders to cultural heritage in Zimbabwe; Primary stakeholders
This organization is the legal custodian to all cultural heritage of Zimbabwe as sanctioned through the NMMZ Act Chapter 25/11.
Most of the cultural sites known today are located in rural areas and in most cases, there remain communities around these sites or who are related to the ancestors that resided at these sites. As such, they have a long association with the site hence are considered a stakeholders of the sites. This is the case with sites such as Great Zimbabwe whose Nemamwa and Mugabe Clans claim ancestral ownership of the site. The Nyanga sacred forest is also linked in tradition to the Saunyama people of the area. Domboshava also has Chief Chinamora and his people as its local community whilst the stakeholders of Manyanga/Ntabazikamambo are not more varied. Upon removal of the Rozvi from Manyanga in the 1930s and their relocation 100 km away, another group was later introduced into the vicinity. These are equally the site’s local community despite the obvious limited relationship with the history of the site. Secondary stakeholders Amongst such stakeholders include; Rural District Council/Local Government Their interest is on the basis that these sites fall within their areas of jurisdiction hence have a marginal role in the management of the sites. National Parks and Wildlife Authority In some cases, cultural heritage sites are located within areas designated as national parks. This is the case with cultural heritage sites such as most of the Rock arts sites in the Matopos excluding Silozwane, also the same with the site of Cecil John Rhodes’ grave. In that case, any visitor to these places has to enter the national park hence their interest. Matopo cultural landscape is considered a sanctuary as it contains hundreds of species of both flora and fauna thereby underlining its status as a World’s view. Victoria Falls, though mostly presented and known as a natural wonder is in fact, a cultural landscape associated with the Tonga community. They used to conduct ritual practices at the site but this all stopped when the site was placed under National Parks because of the Equatorial type climate and forest along the falls themselves.
Sites such as Manyanga are located within privately held properties. The farm used to be owned by Thomas Meikles and as such, he also has a stake regarding what happens at the site because it is on his land. We also have Tour Operators as stakeholders to some sites in the case that they are tourist attractions. Examples are Great Zimbabwe, Khami, Victoria Falls, Ziwa National monuments amongst others. VALUES AT CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES Because of the diversity of stakeholders, several values are noticeable at different sites and these include;
Scientific Value This value is upheld by persons, mostly professionals, who regard cultural heritage sites as places of scientific research. These professionals are not only limited to archaeologists but can include biologists, engineers, botanists, geologists, architects, Zooarchaeologists etc. Archaeologists have yielded evidence that support that Great Zimbabwe has an African origin and once was engaged in international trade with the Far East countries. This evidence came through archaeological excavations that yielded Persian ceramics, Chinese porcelains found amid the ceramics of indigenous Africans. Apart from that, Mapungubwe is now attributed as the earliest socially complex society because its dates are older than Great Zimbabwe’s whilst its economic life has been argued to have included hunting and or trade in ivory, a factor that was helped by the environmental conditions of the time. Archaeologists also document, record sites, list and declare sites as important evidence of past cultures.Climatologists have also added that it declined as influenced partly by the little Ice Age that changed the climatic temperatures of the Shashe Limpopo Valley.Anthropologists have yielded and supported the Cradle of Humanity theory through hominid fossils discovered through archaeological research in South Africa and Tanzania. Economic Value The contemporary economic trend witnessed across the globe involves Cultural tourism. This is also the same with Zimbabwe where several sites are tourist destinations. The most prominent sites are Great Zimbabwe, Khami Victoria Falls. All these sites have one thing in common, they are marketable. This may be influenced by a number of factors such as aesthetic beauty, environmental factors, historical associations, and or religious connotations. As such, business operators such as tour operators ascribe an economic value to the sites based on the site’s ability to turn into a cash cow. This value goes hand in hand with the Aesthetic value attached to cultural heritage sites. Based on a combination of rarity and unique nature of construction that did not involve use of mortar, Great Zimbabwe has an aesthetic value hence an economic value. Such values has seen the construction of the Great Zimbabwe hotel, the Great Zimbabwe Museums, an A1 highway to the site, , a golf course, numerous chalets (self-catering lodges), as well as other supportive tourism infrastructure at Nemamwa Business centre and at Lake Kyle. The same trend is also noticeable at Victoria Falls which has resulted in the site been promoted more as a Wonder of the World, tourist destination rather than also as a cultural landscape. To promote tourism, a number of hotels and tourism facilities have been established such as the Kingdom Hotel, Elephant Hills Hotel, Shearwater Hotel, Tatenda Safaris and Crocodile farm. Tourism activities common include Bunji Jumping, Sunset boat cruises, helicopter flights, fly fishing and the famous white water rafting. Mabura caves in the Zhombe area are believed to have been inhabited and have myths and taboos associated with them. These caves cover a stretch of over 20km are home to thousands of bats. Bat droppings guano, is a fertilizer which has been attracting even the Zibagwe Rural District Council and other mining companies. Source: (Sunday News: Monday 26, 2010.)
Traditionally, the residencies of the elite rulers have been regarded as sacred places. This stems from the association that these rulers were chosen by ancestors and had the power to mediate between them and the ancestors thereby outlining the traditional religion practices of the same communities.As such, the sacred value is upheld by local communities who see sites, not primarily as tourist destinations but as an important part of culture in terms of social identity and sustenance. The Nemamwa and Mugabe clans view Great Zimbabwe as a sacred site where their ancestors have always conducted rituals. This is therefore the reason why they were not initially for the idea of restoration of the walls when they collapsed as well as use of the site for tourism. The same scenario prevails at Manyanga, Domboshava and Nyanga mountains. With sites such as Domboshava, although the cave has rock paintings, what matters most is not the art but the associated use of the cave which defines the sacredness of the site. Political/National Value Some sites such as Great Zimbabwe have tended to have a political hence national value associated with them. This can be traced to the 1950s when resistance to colonialism in Zimbabwe was growing. Political activists at the time used common heritage as a binding factor thereby putting aside ethnical differences. This is the reason why the two prominent political groups to emerge from that era had their names bearing relation to Great Zimbabwe. These were the ZANU and P.F.ZAPU. As such, the uniting factor of common cultural heritage has resulted in the country being the only one in the world to be named after a cultural heritage site. Apart from that, Zimbabwe formally adapted its name from the site, had the image of the site on its currency (the $1 coin) and has the image of the conical tower on the coat of arms and government badge. As such, the national value is recognized by all citizens of the country. Educational Value The educational value pertains to the amount and quality of information that can be imparted upon the citizens of Zimbabwe through understanding their cultural heritage. A number of school children have organized school trips to some cultural heritage sites such as Great Zimbabwe where they can learn about the cultural background to the Zimbabwe the now know. As such, the educational value goes hand in hand with the scientific value and is ascribe to the sites by stakeholders such as the educational sector and NMMZ. Aesthetic Value This relates more to the appearance of the site. In cases of built monuments, the architectural designs, their rarity, size, associations and local environments help define their beauty. This value is not primarily ascribed by one group by is a general feeling upheld by a number of stakeholders. This value is however more synonymous with the economic value as it is the one that results in the ascribing of an economic value at a site. This value is also ascribed to historic buildings but is more determined by their architectural designs and rarity of similar designed infrastructure. CONFLICT OF INTEREST It should however be understood that in as much as cultural heritage is as old as humanity, it is not static.Culture is always changing but what remains are the most prominent components of the culture. The same can be said on the values attached to these sites. This change can be brought about by factors such as globalization and its associated aspects such as modern educational systems, legal systems of management, and change in religion amongst others. For example, a lot of debates have raged and are still raging concerning the Ngoma Lungundu. Questions posed include; How come the Lemba/Vamwenyi people, including the Chief who is over 80 years have no recollection of the supposed important ark? How and why would they give away an important part of their social identity artifact to a stranger if they had been using it? what did they use for the ritual that had involved the use of the ark if the ark had played an important role in the cultural life? These questions could possibly be answered with a simple hypothesis. The role of the Ngoma Lungundu either had been replaced by another cultural practice or it simply fell into disuse over time to an extent that they no longer had intricate associations with it. STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR VALUES The coming of colonialism brought into Zimbabwe a new dimension of appreciation and management of our cultural heritage. The traditional system was replaced in most cases with the legal system, a factor that has resulted in cultural heritage being contested monuments. In as much as some values do not conflict or compliment on others, some have disastrous relations and implications. For example, the scientific value categorizes cultural heritage sites as places of academic research for the understanding of the past. For archaeologists, research ultimately results in excavations, a destructive method of digging around at the sites and recovering material evidence which would be taken to museums for further analysis. In as much as the archaeologists try to only excavate systematically, in some cases, they do so on sacred grounds. This becomes a bone of contention with local communities who regard the excavations as desecration of the sites. As such, in most cases, the scientific value goes against the Sacred/Religious value. Of late, archaeologists have been associated with grave robbers. This is partly true and partly a misconstruction of the intentions of the researcher. The traditional system has taboos and myths that guide the behavior of its society members when it comes to their interaction with important aspects of their identity. As such, it is realized that if a place is considered sacred, all society members are bound by some unwritten code of practice that has stipulated punishments and subsequent ancestral appeasement as apology. This ‘rule’ however does not particularly apply or applicable in situations where members of a different social and cultural background are at one site. This has been the result of tourism hence conflict of interest between the economic and sacred/religious values at one site. For example, the opening of Great Zimbabwe to tourism has been considered as desecration of the site by the local community. The economic value subsequently resulted in the disassociation of the site from them as their ritual practices were subsequently considered as illegal. As such, only the interests of tourists are catered for by the economic value. It must however be realized that it’s not to implythat the local communities do not realize the economic value of Great Zimbabwe. Some members of the local community are employed as tour guides whilst others used the influx of tourists as a platform for revenue generation through selling of curios. The bone of contention lies with the permission to conduct rituals as had been in their culture. FACTORS INFLUENCING CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT
CASE 1: NMMZ won its case against the National Parks and Wildlife Authority for management responsibility for Victoria Falls before an Arbitration Committee comprising the Government’s Chief lawyer; the Attorney General. It won the case that the area proclaimed as a national monument, as outlined by its Act, was infact separate from the national park which NPWLA manages. NPWLA claims that it has been managing the place ever since hence a status quo should be accepted as fait accompli (meaning an accomplished fact. It is commonly used to describe an action which is accomplished before those affected by it are in a position to query or reverse it. Its English equivalent would be ‘done deal’ NMMZ has not been demanding exclusive rights over the place but only an opportunity to implement its obligations in terms of its Act.NPWLA has not been cooperative in that regard. CASE 2: Sometimes the government finds it difficult to implement laws as they are deemed as restrictive to socio-economic development. A case of Nyanga clearly puts this out through the observation of Cran Cooke (1963), who said “…the position at Inyanga is that the whole area of 2000 square miles is dotted with ruins and pits, whilst every hillside is terraced… Our problem is that every landowner who digs a foundation or ploughs a land is virtually destroying some relic or monument of the past. Therefore if the letter of the law is to be enforced it appears that no new town can be developed in the area…” Case Three Mabura caves SYSTEMS OF HERITAGE MANAGEMENT Informal System In the Zimbabwean scenario, there exist several Forests and shrines which are protected through the informal management system just as the Mijikenda Kaya forests. Norumedzo forest in Bikita is still managed through an informal system that has little to no interference from NMMZ. The community upholds several taboos and myths that define the behavior of community members thereby safeguarding the forest. For one, the forest is believed to be inhabited by the angry spirit of Nemeso. On the basis that the forest is also the breeding ground for the stink-bug (harurwa), the social fabric/construct does not allowed unauthorized entrance into the forest which nobody questions. As such, the harvesting of the harurwa is done only after a ritual of appeasing Nemeso had been done. Trees are not cut from the forest, hence defining an excellent case of sustainable management of natural resources. On one side, the community protects that forest and benefits from it. The surrounding villages take turns posting sentries who make sure that nobody gains entrance without permission. Great Zimbabwe: A Case study on Informal Management Prior to the formal heritage management system, respect was expressed through sets of rules on what could be done and what could not be done at sacred sites such as Great Zimbabwe. These rules were taboos and they were the equivalent of modern day legal instruments. Taboos at GZ included;
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