Master's Dissertation First Full Draft

3.6. Summary of theoretical considerations and literature review

Individuals and entities from various spheres have, at various points in time, supposed that newer technologies like the tablet PC would replace older technologies such as printed text (Mangen, 2013a, Marshall, 2005; Sellen & Harper, 2002), However, as this chapter has illustrated, important differences do exist between the analogue and digital word and there is reason to believe that these differences may have important implications, particularly for learning. Using theoretical contributions from Ong (1980, 2011), Donald (2001), and others from the field of cultural-historical activity theory, it has been demonstrated that the written word is a tool and technology which played a pivotal role in the development of human civilisation and has even altered human thought. Insights and evidence from theorists and researchers in the field of grounded cognition helped illustrate the embodied nature of cognition and the important role played by perception, proprioception, bodily states, simulation and other modal factors. Following this, contributions from several theorists and researchers were used to briefly examine relevant questions around the brain, extended mind, and consciousness. Finally, this body of literature (in conjunction with empirical evidence cited in chapter 2) was used to argue that the electronically displayed text – the digital word – has important features which distinguish it from the more traditional analogue word.

The considerations detailed in previous sections suggest that the digital and analogue word do offer different affordances. While there is evidence to suggest that the analogue word does offer important affordances which the digital word does not, it must be noted that the digital word also offers affordances which the analogue does not. Disparities may also narrow as socio-cultural knowledge (both implicit and explicit) around the digital word grows. It seems reasonable to suggest that the introduction of these new digital technologies, rather than replacing paper, may instead allow us to expand the usefulness of the written word, enabling new ways of using and interacting with the written word. It is in this that the strength of the digital word lies – in its ability to expand and complement and not necessarily replace print text or the analogue word.

Many important questions are raised by these considerations. Given that the core focus of this dissertation is on the role of the digital word and its various interfaces and its impact on educational outcomes, the most appropriate focus questions appear to be those centred on learning and in particular the impact of these various devices on learning. The next chapter will now detail the experimental methodology utilised to conduct the research experiments which are the focus of this dissertation.

Chapter 4

Methods

4.1. Overview

When used in the educational context, tablets are often used to replace traditional paper-based textbooks with electronic or e-textbooks. This experiment examined whether performance differences exist when learners performed the same reading task using either traditional pen and paper or using a tablet PC. Participants either performed a reading-only or reading and writing task which was followed one week later by a multiple-choice test on the passage read. This study involved both repeated measures (i.e. within subjects) participants who performed either the reading-only or reading and writing task on both paper and tablet as well as participants who completed only one of these conditions (i.e. between subjects). The tests used contained both factual and conceptual (i.e. higher-order, applied) questions.

4.2. Aims and objectives of this experiment

This experiment examined whether performance differences exist when South African secondary learners performed ostensibly the same reading-and-writing based learning tasks using either traditional pen and paper or using a tablet PC. Learning performance (as opposed to reading comprehension) was measured by introducing a meaningful time-delay between the task itself and the test conducted. Differences were further explored through the comparison of ostensibly identical tasks on paper and tablet (i.e. reading only) as well as ostensibly similar tasks on paper and tablet (reading and note-taking), both tasks or activities which provide a reasonable approximation of real-world learning.

4.3. Rationale for experimental design

Arguably the most common use of tablets in the educational setting is replacing traditional paper-based textbooks with electronic or e-textbooks. Existing literature is yet to reach a definitive conclusion on what differences, if any, exist between reading from paper and from tablet PC screens, although most existing studies effectively tested reading comprehension (since participants were tested almost immediately after completing the reading tasks) rather than learning (by introducing a meaningful time-delay between task and testing). Despite a lack of definite clarity, however, it is the more recent of the studies reviewed which indicate that meaningful differences may exist. Furthermore, these studies cast doubt on the assumption that the fundamental task of reading is device-agnostic, with differences in levels of visual fatigue, comprehension etc. It is therefore imperative to examine whether meaningful performance differences in learning exist when using these two different media (digital and analogue). The most sensible place to begin would appear to be examine whether learning performance differences exist for reading only (a fundamental task which is not dependent on device-familiarity) and for reading and note-taking (a commonly used learning strategy among secondary and tertiary learners).

A one-week delay between reading task and test adds to the logistical complexity of the experiment and increases the risk of attrition. A further component was added to this experiment after data was collected by partitioning out a sub-sample of participants who had a two-to-three-day delay between reading task and test (as opposed to the approx. one week delay for all other participants), with the aim of establishing whether this shorter delay still provides as ecologically valid a measure of learning as a one-week delay.