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Represented by the drawing and the deliberation?
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- Aix-la-Chapelle Poitou-Charentes Total
- Group of actors Assumed Interest / interest defended
- Type of interest Group of actors Interest
2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? The authors of the corpus concentrated their attacks against the modern democracy on the question of the representation distorted that it would entail. Quite logically, therefore, it is in this area that they are waiting for the most of the employment of the draw. It is going to test at what point the participants of the two mini-public have really represents their fellow citizens formally (2.1 ) and substantially (2.2 ) and how they have made of the accounts has their agents (2.3 ). 2.1A Stellvertretung really more faithful
The expectations concerning the formal representation are relatively simple to translate. It is sufficient for it to consider the geographical origin and the socio-economic characteristics of the participants to judge their representativeness. Concerning the symbolic representation, one can be interested with the responses of the participants to the questions concerning their feeling of having been representative, as well as those delivered by the speakers and organizers on the question of the representativeness of the participants4. 4See A2, A3, A4, (questions 3.B and 7.A) and A6 (questions 9.1 to 9.4 ) as well as P3, P4, P5 (questions 3.B and 7.B) and P7 (questions 9.1 to 9.4 ). 240 2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? 2.1 .2The formal representation to Aix and Poitiers 2.1.2 .1a cross section with a few through As might be expected given the number of people invited, the result of the recruitment has given has Aix-la-Chapelle as a Poitiers a panel not statistically representative but widely diversifie5. In geographical terms, 60% of the German participants came from the center of Aix-la-Chapelle and 40% of the periphery, which accurately reflected the structure of the population of the city (figure 40, p. 241), a result consistent with the quota introduced in the recruitment process. In Poitou-Charentes , the inhabitants of the departments of Charente Maritime were under-represented, those deux-sèvres over-represented, those of the Charente and the Vienna in good number (illustration 41, p. 242). The deviation is explained above all by the geographical distance between the place of residence and the place of conduct of the jury. A demographic point of view, the participants of the class of age application No 40/59 shall be borne years were over-represented in the two cases (illustrations 42 and 43 p. 243), in the same way, the class of age had made the lowest sub-representee6. City Center Periphery 0 50
Planungszellen Aix-la-Chapelle Illustration 40: geographical origin of participants has Aix-la-Chapelle. 5On the details of the recruitment procedure used, see chapter 4, point 5.3.2.1 , p. 229 for Aix-la-Chapelle and point 5.3.2.2 , p. 229 for Poitiers. 6The lowest category is to be taken with caution in the German case, given that the city of Aix-la-Chapelle account children from 10 years and that the participation has the Planungszelle is possible from 16 years only, which relativizes the under-representation found. A Poitiers on the other hand, the regional statistics began 18 years ago and the figures are therefore more faithful. 241
Chapter 5: Aix-la-Chapelle and Poitiers, the theory in action? Deux-sèvres Charentes Charente-Maritime Vienna 0
20 30 40 Citizen Jury Poitou-Charentes Illustration 41: geographical origin of participants in Poitou-Charentes . The distribution of kind was, however, fairly faithful, although men were a little over-representation in the jury french (illustration 44, p. 243 and Figure 45, p. 244). The structure socio-professional of the two groups can be described as a cross-section wide but not of statistically significant sample. In the case of Aix-la-Chapelle, the participants had the opportunity to respond to a questionnaire of evaluation in which the question of their profession was asked. In the whole form by the 89 responses, there are more than 40 activities and different statutes which correspond to a wide range of PCS has the french (A5-4, 37) although participants, speakers and organizers declare that the citizens present during the Planungszellen were of a level higher socioprofessional has the moyenne7. Most of the recruitment by drawing does not appear to have been sufficient to extend the participation beyond the formal citizenship, and we could observe a under-representation of foreign participants and/or from immigration. 7See, for example, A3-1 (06:11) : " Und welche Kategorien waren uber-reprasentiert resp. unter-reprasentiert? " On " Das ist meiner Meinung nach eine mehr oder Weninger Auslese der Ratsmitglieder. Offentlicher Dienst uber-reprasentiert, Bildungsnah Schichten uber-reprasentiert, Migranten unter-reprasentiert und sozialschwache unter-reprasentiert. ≪ See also (A2-2, 08:04) : " Wir haben unsere Gruppe als recht homogeneous Gruppe von hoheren Bildungsniveau empfunden. Aus unserer Sicht war niemand aus den sogenannten sozial ökologische benachteiligten Schicht Dabei Temple. ≪ 242
2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? 10 - 19
20 - 29 30 - 39
40 - 49 50 - 59
60 - 69 70 And More 0 10
30 Planungszelle Aix-la-Chapelle
20-39
Application No 40/59 shall be borne 60 And More 0 20
60 80 Citizen Jury Poitou-Charentes Illustration 43: population structure of participants in Poitou-Charentes . Female
Male 0 20 40 60 Planungszelle Aix-la-Chapelle Illustration 44: distribution by gender of the participants has Aix-la-Chapelle. 243
Chapter 5: Aix-la-Chapelle and Poitiers, the theory in action? Male
Female 0 20 40 60 80 Citizen Jury Poitou-Charentes Figure 45: distribution by gender of the participants in Poitou-Charentes . In Poitou-Charentes , we note the absence of the category of farmers and a significant under-representation of the category of " inactive " (figure 46, p. 244). If we cannot move forward to statistics given that the ethnic origins and/or national have not been requested to participants, the participatory observation (A1-1, 36-57) and the informal discussions have shown, in contrast, have a great diversity of origins: we had the opportunity to speak with people originating in Denmark, of Algeria, Senegal and Brazil, which is at least 15% of the participants. Farmers Artisans, traders, business leaders Frameworks, higher intellectual professions Intermediate Professions Employees Workers
Pensioners Without professional activity 0 10
30 40 Citizen Jury Poitou-Charentes Illustration 46: occupational distribution of participants in Poitou-Charentes . 244
2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? 2.1.2 .2of citizens who feel representative " I am anonymous, I represent a part of the population, I feel useful. ≪ (P3-10, 23:30). The representativeness objective is double among the participants of the two countries to a strong sense of representing their fellow citizens at the local level (figure 47, p. 245, corresponding to the question 9.1 and 9.2 of the survey later) despite the bias toward the upper middle class in Germany. However, while the citizens has Poitiers consider be representative of the whole of the French, the inhabitants of Aix-la-Chapelle declare not to feel representative of the whole of the Germans. A difference which is easily explained by the comments of the latter on the fact that the subject of Planungszellen was local and therefore had nothing to do with the national representation. For outside observers, the participants seem to have left the same impression of diversity, variety. On the other hand, it is particularly difficult to judge the representativeness of symbolic participants from the rest of the population. Two indices only can be developed here. Firstly a survey carried out in France on the possible introduction of juries citizens has large scale, which showed that 59% of those surveyed were in favor8 and secondly the answers given by the participants on the reactions in their entourage which seem to have been positive in the ensemble9. Aix-la-Chapelle Poitou-Charentes Total 9.1 Have you had the impression to represent the inhabitants of the Poitou-Charentes / of Aix-la-Chapelle? Yes 6
15 Non
4 0 4 No advice - do not know 0 0 0 9.2 The French / German in general? Yes 1
8 Non
8 2 10 No advice - do not know 1 0 1 Illustration 47: feeling of participants on their representativeness. 8The cross (2006, 1) : " The jury of citizens is proving popular: Almost six French on ten (59 %) say they favor the idea of " citizen juries " mentioned by SéGolã¨ne Royal, according to a CSA poll published yesterday by the Parisian (817 persons interviewed on 25 October). ≪ 9See for example A2-4 (01:32) : " Die haben mir gesagt went 'mach mit' ≪. For a reaction more skeptical, see P3-4 (01:32) : " My wife said to me leaves fall, it is a gimmick. ≪ 245
Chapter 5: Aix-la-Chapelle and Poitiers, the theory in action? 2.1 .3Results The expectation of a representativeness formal greater is therefore largely confirmed by the practice if it takes as a basis the idea of the cross-section and not that of the people in miniature. On the other hand, the participants in the two countries the feeling to represent their fellow citizens. Printing which is found to a lesser extent among the other actors who had been in contact with the forum: the entourage of participants and stakeholders. There are, however, not of elements allowing to characterize in a sustainable way the feeling of the population in general. 2.2A tilt relative to the mandate Unlike in the case of the Stellvertretung, the translation of the concept of Reprasentation is relatively complex has achieved since it is to judge whether, how and what interests have summers presented to citizens and then treated and formulas in recommendations (2.2.3 and 2.2.4 ). But we must begin by translating the theoretical expectations in this area (2.2.2 ) and even before this, define those interests, such that they were present before the forum (2.2.1 ). 2.2 .1What interests in presence? 2.2.1 .1The interests in presence to Aix-la-Chapelle Schematically, we can identify a set of five interest groups which correspond more or less has groups of actors (cf. illustration 48, p. 249). The first of them is of course the group of citizens. While it is impossible to know what were the specific interests of each of the 96 participants, it is quite able to identify at least two major lines of conflict. The first ran between inhabitants of the city center and residents of the periphery (A1-1, 24). In effect, as has been seen in the previous chapter, the system of single tax advantaged the residents of peripheral neighborhoods and any reform toward a differentiated model, has two or three columns for example, was for these latter synonymous with an increase in their tax. In contrast, the inhabitants of the center which, let us remember, accounted for 60% of participants, had interests to request a change of the system toward a differentiated model. All in contrast had interest in limiting the 246 2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? Tax in itself. The second was more subtle to detect because it crossed strongly the first division, but in a more diffuse: it was the interests of the inhabitants of individual houses, houses in sharing and apartments in sets larger. The first - or that they live - were subsidized by the second which them-even were subsidized by the latest for the simple reason that the tax in the sets of apartments was calculated according to the surface of the housing and that it was therefore impossible for the different homes to influence their own tax (A5-5, 30-31). For its part, the municipal administration, and in particular the board responsible for the collection of garbage had of interest based on a concern for management (A5-3 -11). She had a preference for the model has two columns that allowed him an optimization of the rate of filling of trucks and a greater fluidity of quantities of waste (A3-11, 25:00). This system appeared in addition be the compromise the more fair to reform easing the burden of the inhabitants of large ensembles while limiting the increase of individual fees (A3-4, 05:45). In addition, the municipal government was interested in the idea of test of census techniques of electronic waste bins in order to best manage the waste stream. A third group in the presence was that of the politicians in the form of representatives of parties elected to the council municipal10. The CDU and the FDP, the two opposition parties, proposed the establishment of a system has three columns (A1-2, 119 ; A3-8, 08:30). Solution which had finished by do unanimously until the final vote on the municipal council during which the fraction environmentalist had suddenly made machine rear and proposed to keep the model has a column in arguing that the paper bins and compost should be recorded with the residual waste to motivate the citizens to sort and limit the impact of the constant evolution of the price of the processing of the paper. The SPD fraction pulled has this opinion by virtue of the treaty of coalition and ends by proposing the Planungszelle with its partner, while still maintaining an initial preference for a system has two columns (A3-9, 17:30). The fourth group of interests brought together the local economic actors represented by the chamber of commerce and industry, whose purpose was to ensure that the traders and the industry are not included in the new system and continue to take advantage of a tari10In The order of importance in terms of number of votes in the Council: the Christian democratic union of right center (CDU - Cristlich-Demokratische Union), the social democratic party of the center-left (SPD - Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschland), the Union 90 - the Greens as green party (Bundnis90 - Die Grunen) and the Freedom Party German representative the liberal right (FDP - Freiheitspartei Deutschland). 247
Chapter 5: Aix-la-Chapelle and Poitiers, the theory in action? Separate fication (A5-5, 65). We may also include in this set the owners and tenants as a group, the first interested by a simple tax and transparent and the latter by a tax flexible and individualized (A5-5, 66-67). Finally, a fifth group of interests that might be called indirect seems to have its place. First of all in the form of environmental interests realized when of the forum through a militant association for the reduction of waste and whose main interest was to see the tax collection and treatment directly included in the price of products (A5-3 -12). But beyond this interest concrete it must probably also consider the environmental interests as a frame of substance more general that we will include inductive manner in the result of the analysis. In a different register, all also left a thinking at the beginning of the experience that the stakeholders specialists on the issue of garbage could be assimilated to a group of specific interests, a fact corroborated by the difficulties encountered by the organizers was " find someone who is not of the network" on (A1-1, 32) and by the repeated observation that the stakeholders were nearly all, with the exception of the one who would plead for a solution radical ecological (A1-1, 72-73). The whole of this constellation of actors and positions must still be the subject of two remarks. First of all, the representatives of the CDU, the SPD and the FDP had apparently exceeds the interests of their electoral clientele since they had agreed on a system that has the disadvantage. They had by the-same exceeds their own interest of taxpayer since they wanted reform a system which they benefited the most (A3-8, 15:28). The representatives of the green party on the other hand had put in before the model has a column ( statusquo) arguing for the interest it had for a better sorting of waste, while responding quite strongly to the expectations of their electoral clientele (A3-10, 03:55). On the other hand, no fraction is supported the model proposed by the administration and there was thus a latent conflict between the views of these two groups of actors (A3-9, 16:00). The administration as has she considered the positions of political actors as reflecting an attitude piecemeal or even individualiste11. 11 (A3-4, 06:00) : " Was ich schrecklich fand war, dass ersten Jahrtausend anhand der Argumentation man nachvollziehen konnte, welches Mitglied der Arbeitsgruppe in welcher Art Wohnung lebt. Ob es jemandem in einem Einfamilienhaus ist, der gerne eine kleine Restabfalltonne und eine grosere Biotonne hatte, oder ob es jemandem ist, der in einer Groswohnanlage lebt. Das konnte man nachvollziehen. Ersten Jahrtausend anhand der Argumentationskette. 248 ≪ 2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? Group of actors Assumed Interest / interest defended Citizens
The center Two or three columns From the edge A column
Living in a single-family home A column
Capita in a common home Two or three columns Capita in a greater whole Two or three columns Municipal Governance Two columns Politicians CDU
Three columns SPD
Three columns, then two columns and then employment of the Planungszelle Bundnis 90 - Die Grunen Three columns and then return on a column and employment of the Planungszelle FDP
Three columns Organized Interests Owners A column in the position of renter of a housing Tenants Depending on the type of housing Traders / industry Regardless of the model of the moment that endures the system of special tax Indirect Interests Environment Model which pushes the more has reduce the production of waste and increase recycling. Other, has set Experts of waste A clarify
2.2.1 .2The interests in presence in Poitiers The constellation of interests in the framework picto-charentais is less obvious has characterize that the previous for four reasons: first, the subject was widely broader and more consensual. Secondly, the trustee as an institution had a control are considerably less pushed, not to say infinitesimal, on the subject of the jury (a tax versus the climate warming). Thirdly, the mandate given to the participants was less operational and more conceptual and creative. Fourthly, and most importantly, the constellation of actors was greatly disseminated, there was no institutional blockage prior it is-a-say not really of firm positions of political actors and administrative, the pressure has the decision-making was also widely more faible12. In the light of these circumstances, it seems appropriate to classify the interests of departure depending on whether they were structural or cyclical, by grouping then possibly the actors in these categories (figure 49, p. 250). Structurally speaking, three questions arose: is there climate change? If so, is it of human origin? In both cases, should we do something against? A Poitiers, the empirical material has left see two positions from 12Recall that has Aix-la-Chapelle the renewal of the tax was a legal obligation arriving a term in the first January 2009. 249 Chapter 5: Aix-la-Chapelle and Poitiers, the theory in action? A different answer the second question. Indeed the whole of the actors agreed that there is global warming and that we must act, but were not in agreement on the fact that global warming either of origin beings themselves.13. The structural interest of the whole of the actors was therefore that the region both to combat the change to the " survival of future generations ". The cyclical level, we can identify between the interests political, economic and financial. The political interest of the regional majority was multiple: it wanted to keep its election promises in terms of participatory democracy and of environmental policy, obtain a positive evaluation of its policy, and receive useful recommendations for its action (P1-1, 7). In contrast, the opposition had interest in this that the assessment is negative and has this as its own agenda becomes that of the citizens without that we can so far as to define this agenda has priori14. A Poitiers, the administration agreed with the political interests of the regional majority (P4-1). Financially speaking, the citizens had an interest in that the taxes funding the policy against the climate change does not increase while obtaining that the region to put in place a maximum of actions. Finally, the regional economic players present had interest in what the region should invest in the green growth. Type of interest Group of actors Interest Structural All the actors Fight against the change and enable the " survival of the species " ON Cyclical Policies
Politicians of the majority Administration Take the election promises Obtain a positive evaluation Politicians of the opposition Highlight the weaknesses of the policy carried out To pass its own recommendations Financial Citizens Get the best ratio taxes / actions Economic Economic actors Get more investment in green growth
For the authors of the corpus, the employment of the draw would entail a decentration of the representative mandate which result in a better defense of the interests of the constituents by the 13This difference influence however the cyclical position of the players who do not advocate the same actions as they see global warming as of human origin or not. 14 Unlike the case of Aix-la-Chapelle in which political preferences were clear. 250 2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? Through a mathematical game, the principle of reciprocity reflexive or reconvergence of interests. The first empirical question is therefore the following: what interests are taxed has Aix-la-Chapelle and has Poitiers? What type of representation are they the fruit? Beyond this aspect, the authors of the corpus, hoping for a series of additional effects that we will present here in summary form in the pairing to questions corresponding empirical. First, the prize draw would entail for them a limitation of adverse effects of the professionalization of the political15 : There has been case has Aix-la-Chapelle and has Poitiers has a group in a position of independence or on the contrary has professionals of the policies? Secondly, for most of the authors, the draw obviate the Fraktionszwang, the need to organize in order to obtain majorities. What has he been in the two forums? Each new question has it been the opportunity to be an opinion? Has there been in the presence of an enlightened audience ready to change of opinion? Thirdly, the authors expect the independence of representatives a greater flexibility in the definition of the policy agenda allowing for rapid integration of new issues and to take account of the interests supranational and intergenerational. What has he been in the two experiments? How was the fixing of the calendar? What perspective the participants have they adopted? Can we speak of a policy of long-term? The general interest has he been taken into account? Fourthly, regarding the deliberative processes, the theorists are waiting for the employment of the draw a reversal of the opposition of principle and a spirit of cooperation: has there been able to observe this trend? How the citizens did they behave with each other? We also saw fifthly that the authors studied do not wish that the representatives are limited to exercise an imperative mandate: the citizens have they received such a mandate? The have-it respects? In order to reply to this set extremely complex of questions, we will take as wire conductor the assumption that the act of representation in the two experiments is neither the result of a statistical defense of interests, nor a product of the reflexive reciprocity, nor a demonstration of the reconvergence of interests but that it is a joint process, that of the construction of the general interest. 15It is recalled here these effects, such as the authors characterize: the race to the vote, the spiral of the financing of electoral campaigns, the need to make promises and all the dangers of corruption and creating a class of professionals of the policy. 251 Chapter 5: Aix-la-Chapelle and Poitiers, the theory in action?
2.2.3 .1of the particular interest to the general interest The absence of mathematical defense of interests A defense of mathematical interests, such that longed for by a portion of the authors would result has Aix-la-Chapelle by the domination of the interests of the inhabitants of the city center it is-a-say the abandonment of the single tax and the adoption of a system has two or three columns. However, an overwhelming majority of participants considered the single pricing model as the best (17 plans of actions on 19) in arguing for his simplicity, his cost of operation low as well as its propensity to encourage the tri16. There was, therefore, no statistical representation. The same is true of the reflexive reciprocity which would have pushed the whole of participants has considered the position of the most disadvantaged, which they have not done since they have spoken for a system which rewarded financially the more affluent. A Poitiers, albeit the interests at stake have been profoundly different and more vague, it can be assumed that a mathematical representation would have pushed the participants to reject measures entailing a financial overhead for them. However, there is no trace of such requests in the opinion. We note on the contrary that a part of the proposals aim clearly has support the homes the more modest in the process of adaptation to climate change (P6-8-1, 16). A position which is rather of the principle of reciprocity reflexive and found several times in the opinion. Yet, this is not the only form of representation: the participants do not hesitate for example has plead for a more rigorous rules in the field of building permits, regulation that could touch them one day or the other. They are therefore beyond a simple selfish altruism. 16For a summary of the recommendations of the citizens of Aix-la-Chapelle, see illustration 57, p. 291. 252
2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? A strong independence If the citizens do not seem to have been giving precedence to their individual interests, it might be thought that some of the other interests in the presence are taxed. It is nothing of the sort, however. A Aix-la-Chapelle, the administration who was pleading for a system has two columns has not received the argues that a plan of action then even that she was principal of Planungszellen and it had the opportunity to widely make its point of view: it had in effect of four of the sixteen time reserved for presentations and had largely contributed to the choice of the set of stakeholders. More still, the Régie has found be the " suspect number one " on citizens during the process and a posteriori: participants are widely complained that the Régie does not book all his figures (A2-2, 17:45) and have considered its interventions as the least neutral for the whole (A2-3 or A1-1, 73). One might think that the politicians have summers more successful, given that the solution favored by the majority in place has also been favored by the majority of the plans. The situation is, however, less clear than it seems. First, the plans favored by the various parties are not taxed: the model has three columns, supported by the CDU and the FDP has been virtually ignored (a single plan) of same as that has two columns, preferred by the SPD (a support). The preferred model by the Greens, that has a column has had a little more success since it forms the basis of eight of the plans. But it does not constitute the majority of the opinions of the participants. In the second place, and this is, in fact, far more important, the citizens have never ceased that mark their difference face has these partisan positions at the forum (A1-1, 84), but also during the interviews (A2-14, 16:23). If they have chosen a particular model, so this is not due to the official position of the one or the other of the parties as discussed in detail later (2.2.3.2 , p. 257 et seq. ). Concerning now the economic interests, including those of the merchants, it is noted that eight plans propose to include them in the tax, that a preferred plan that they continue to be excluded and that nine plans are not making a judgment on the question what makes say that these in253
Chapter 5: Aix-la-Chapelle and Poitiers, the theory in action? Terets are not taxed non-plus17. Rest has considered the interests of experts of household garbage that citizens have judge with a wary distance. For example, concerning the introduction of automated systems of management of waste streams, which are rejected by virtually all the plans of action18. A Poitiers, the situation is far from being as clear. The cyclical interests of politicians of the opposition have been largely ignored and criticism although this is in part of the rejection of the policy develop an important agonistic and conduct procedural of this part of the jury (cf. infra 2.2.3.2 , p. 257 et seq. ). The interests of cyclical regional majority and of economic actors on the other hand, have found a strong echo in the final recommendations (P6-8, 8-10) and the citizens seem to have had a position less critical face has some stakeholders (2.2.4.2 , p. 264 et seq. ). Despite everything, the empirical study reveals two elements which tend to establish that the French citizens have also demonstrated independence in their work. First, they have tried hard enough the lack of diversity of stakeholders during the forum19 but also in the final questionnaire. In the latter, the participants could judge a set of elements concerning the conduct of the jury. As shown in the following table (figure 51, p. 255), the question concerning the diversity of stakeholders has obtained the lowest average in a judgment of overall very positive (45.7 per cent of the replies are of 6 and the average for each question is 5.18 ). Secondly, and even if this is more the domain of the felt, a majority of respondents in the interviews and the survey later said that they have had the feeling of working in a manner independante20. Beyond these specific elements to the two experiences, the independence of citizens is reflected in two ways transverse. First of all, in both cases, the majority of participants reported having changed its opinion in the sessions work permit.21. In the second place, as 17In reality eight plans do not pronounce and a plan considers that the need to collect more of conflicting information on the subject before we can decide (A5-5, 93). 18Of the 19 plans, 15 are totally against it for reasons of cost but also to affect the private life and danger of see increase the volume of waste wild. Two do not mention this question and two finally are for but by adding strict conditions (A5-5, 78-93). 19See for example P1-1 (47) or P3-10 (14:47) : " concerning the information I felt that it was a little headed. They we showed only their actions. ≪ 20P7-1 has P7-9: six participants on 9 responded " no " on the question " Have you had the impression to be influence in your work?≪ among the three people who responded in the affirmative, two say that it is positive because it was not of influence but of information and a that the influence is not necessarily of the manipulation. 21See, for example, A5-5 (94) : 73 per cent of respondents (N= 89) reported having changed its mind. 254 2. Represented by the drawing and the deliberation? Will be discussed in some detail, the citizens are mobilizing their own competence to base their decisions, they appeal has their judgment independently of the information received. Yüklə 3,57 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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