West Coast Publishing Ocean 2014 affirmative page

Advantage: Ocean Biodiversity Internal Links

Internal Links – Wind Farms Boost Biodiversity (General)

Offshore wind farms increase ocean biodiversity in two ways: reduces CO2 emissions and make destructive fishing methods impossible in the area

The European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), 2012, “Positive environmental impacts of offshore wind farms,” http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/members-area/information-services/offshore/research-notes/120801_Positive_environmental_ impacts.pdf, Accessed 5/12/2014

Offshore wind farms have a positive impact on the marine environment in several ways. First of all, they contribute to reduce CO2 emissions, the major threat to biodiversity. Secondly, provided that offshore wind farms do not dramatically affect the initial environment conditions, they provide regeneration areas for fish and benthic populations. This can be explained not only because of reduced trawling activities but also because offshore wind farms foundations function as an artificial reef encouraging the creation of new habitats.

Offshore wind farms boost marine biodiversity with new habitats and ecosystem recovery

Business Green, Staff Writer, August 11, 2011, “Offshore wind farms are good for biodiversity, say researchers,” http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2100917/offshore-wind-farms-biodiversity-researchers, Accessed 5/13/2014

Meanwhile, the survey concluded that sea bird species such as gannets tend to avoid the turbines, while seagulls appear unflustered and local cormorant numbers even increase. "The number of birds that collided with the turbines was not determined but was estimated to be quite low on the basis of observations and model calculations," the researchers added in the article, published in online journal Environmental Research Letters. The study noted that the effects of wind farms will inevitably vary depending on their position, but that offshore wind farms can contribute to a more diverse habitat and even help nature to recover from the effects of intensive fishing, pollution, oil and gas extraction, and shipping. However, the report did recognise that the rotating blades can have a "disruptive impact" on some bird species, and recommends that wind farms are located in specific areas to minimise the possible impact.

Internal Links (Habitats/Reef Effect)

Turbine placement creates 2.5 times greater fish habitats

Walter Musial, Principal Engineer, National Wind Technology Center at NREL and Bonnie Ram, Ram Power, L.L.C., September 2010, “Large-Scale Offshore Wind Power in the United States, Assessment of Opportunities and Barriers, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NERL), http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/40745.pdf, Accessed 5/10/2014

Offshore wind turbines may be new habitat for species. The monopile provides up to 2.5 times the amount of area lost through placement. Although this new habitat is likely to be different than the habitat lost, it will be a refuge and food source for species. There is a long history of artificial reef complexes associated with offshore platforms throughout the world. To maximize the carrying capacity of the area around the monopiles and prevent scour, developers can use different substrates to simulate different environments and thus attract a variety of species. For example, gravel would simulate a gravel seabed, boulders would simulate a rocky outcrop, and synthetic fronds would simulate sea grass beds.

There are almost no negative effects and those are outweighed by habitat revitalization

Business Green, Staff Writer, August 11, 2011, “Offshore wind farms are good for biodiversity, say researchers,” http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2100917/offshore-wind-farms-biodiversity-researchers, Accessed 5/13/2014

It is the evidence proponents of offshore wind farms have been waiting for: a Dutch study has found that offshore wind turbines have "hardly any negative effects" on wildlife, and may even benefit animals living beneath the waves. The researchers reached their conclusions after studying a wind farm near Windpark Egmond aan Zee, the first large-scale offshore wind farm built off the Dutch North Sea coast. Anti-wind farm campaigners have often argued that wind farms can have a negative impact on bird populations, while some critics have voiced concerns that offshore wind farms could prove disruptive to marine life. However, Professor Han Lindeboom from the Institute for Marine Resources and Ecosystem Studies at Wageningen University and Research centre, said that the new study revealed little evidence of negative effects on local wildlife. "At most, a few bird species will avoid such a wind farm. It turns out that a wind farm also provides a new natural habitat for organisms living on the sea bed such as mussels, anemones and crabs, thereby contributing to increased biodiversity," he said. "For fish and marine mammals, it provides an oasis of calm in a relatively busy coastal area."

Offshore wind creates a reef effect that increases fish abundance

Science Daily, Staff Writer, January 19, 2010, “Offshore wind power and wave energy devices create artificial reefs,” Science Daily, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100118132130.htm, Accessed 5/13/2014

Offshore wind power and wave energy foundations can increase local abundances of fish and crabs. The reef-like constructions also favour for example blue mussels and barnacles. What's more, it is possible to increase or decrease the abundance of various species by altering the structural design of foundation. This was shown by Dan Wilhelmsson of the Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, in a recently published dissertation.

Ocean renewable systems are proven to create a reef effect that bolsters fish habitats

George W. Boehlert, Ph.D. in Marine Biology, former Director of the Hatfield Marine Center and Andrew B. Gill, Ph.D., Senior Lecturer in Aquatic Ecology, Environmental Science and Technology Department, School of Applied Sciences at Cranfield University, 2010, “Environmental and Ecological Effects Of Ocean Renewable Energy Development, A Current Synthesis,” Oceanography, Volume 23, Number 2,

http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/16152/23-2_boehlert_hi.pdf?sequence=1, Accessed 4/13/2014

Below water, devices will include buoys, rotors or other moving structures (ocean current and tidal), cabling systems, hard-fixed structures (such as monopoles or jackets), rock scour protection, anchors, electrical cables, or pressurized pipes. In the case of land based ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), large pipes will extend along the ocean bottom to significant depths. These new hard surfaces will alter bottom communities; for wave energy in particular, most oscillating devices will be deployed in “featureless” sandy sedimentary habitats. The physical structures will result in settlement habitat for different organisms, creating an artificial reef effect as has been the case for offshore oil and gas platforms and offshore wind farms in Europe (see benthic habitat receptor discussion). In midwater, if no anti-fouling is used, the new structure will provide settlement habitat and likely attract pelagic organisms, the principle that makes “fish aggregation devices” effective.

Turbines create new habitat structures for fish

Business Green, Staff Writer, August 11, 2011, “Offshore wind farms are good for biodiversity, say researchers,” http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2100917/offshore-wind-farms-biodiversity-researchers, Accessed 5/13/2014

The research, sponsored by NoordzeeWind, a joint venture of Nuon and Shell Wind Energy, claimed that offshore wind farms actually have a beneficial long-term effect on wildlife. The wind farm functions as a new type of habitat, the report said, detailing how new species are attracted to the turbine foundations and surrounding rocks. The researchers also noted that the turbines help to protect schools of cod, and that porpoises are heard more often inside than outside the wind farm.

Internal Links (Fish Stocks)

Wind farms can substantially boost commercial fish stocks

Mike Childs, head of science, policy and research at environmental organisation Friends of the Earth, December 1, 2013, “On Reflection: How offshore wind can help marine wildlife,” Wind Power Monthly, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1222618/ reflection-offshore-wind-help-marine-wildlife, Accessed 5/13/2014

But is it really possible to develop marine renewables and help nature? I chaired a session at RenewablesUK's recent annual conference that addressed this question. Emma Sheehan from the Plymouth University Marine Institute presented findings from the Marine Renewables, Biodiversity and Fisheries report produced for Friends of the Earth. The report summarises research into marine renewables and marine biodiversity. It concluded that, when done well, marine renewables could indeed help wildlife. It also found that offshore wind farms can significantly help populations of commercial fish species. Angela de Burgh, a consultant at Marine Ecological Surveys, told us of soon-to-be-published research on the 300MW Thanet offshore wind farm off the Kent coast. Prior to its construction, the company's survey found that much of the sea floor was degraded due to trawling. But some colonies of ross worm that had escaped the damage. Through its burrowing activities this worm creates a reef structure that other sea creatures colonise. By using this survey information the firm could locate the turbines in such a way that no further damage to this important reef-forming species was caused. Because of the wind farm there has been a reduction in damaging trawling activities. The ross worm is now flourishing and marine wildlife such as the pink shrimp, hermit crab and anemone are returning. This is rewilding in action.

Turbine foundations boost local fish populations

Ocean Energy Council, 2014, “Offshore Wind Energy,” http://www.oceanenergycouncil.com/ocean-energy/offshore-wind-energy/, Accessed 4/9/2014

The environmental impact of offshore wind farms is considerably reduced compared with those onshore; both noise and visual impact are unlikely to be issues, but there are still some considerations. For example, there could be an environmental impact from carrying out work offshore, such as localised disturbance of the seabed. Studies on existing projects have shown that some foundations can act as artificial reefs with a resultant increase in fish populations from the new food supply. It has been suggested that the noise from the turbine travel underwater and disturb sea life. Nonetheless ships, boats and engines have been a fact of life for over a hundred years.

Offshore wind farms boost fish populations by restricting destructive fishing methods

Walter Musial, Principal Engineer, National Wind Technology Center at NREL and Bonnie Ram, Ram Power, L.L.C., September 2010, “Large-Scale Offshore Wind Power in the United States, Assessment of Opportunities and Barriers, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NERL), http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/40745.pdf, Accessed 5/10/2014

Overall, offshore wind farms have the potential to have a positive effect on fish and benthos through the creation of a restricted zone, of habitat, and of areas that could be used for mariculture. A 2005 environmental impact assessment conducted by DONG found that a wind farm would be a net gain for fish and benthic populations because trawling would be restricted around the wind farm under a 1992 Danish Executive Order (No. 939), which prohibits trawling within 200 m of sea cables. In the United States, Cape Wind Associates does not plan to restrict any recreational or commercial fishing activities in the Nantucket area. According to Fayram and de Risi (2007), wind turbines in the Adriatic Sea have the potential to act as “fish-aggregating devices” for bluefin tuna and other species, and they suggest designating the areas around wind farms as marine protection areas.

A2: Construction Hurts Biodiversity

Construction disturbances are minor and temporary

Anne-Charlotte Vaissière, IFREMER, UMR AMURE, Marine Economics Unit, ZI Pointe du Diable, France, et al, September 2014, “Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe,” Marine Policy, vol. 48, pp. 172–183.

Turbidity and material from stirred-up sediment can impact fish. Suspended particles increase turbidity and reduce light penetration, and in consequence photosynthesis decreases and the trophic chain balance is broken. Underwater noise and vibration result from dredging and pile-driving: fish are disturbed and can be injured (hearing damage, death, distorted behavior). Developers claim that these impacts are minor and temporary and vary from species to species. Some migratory fish may be disturbed. Most of the reports say that fish usually avoid the site during construction work. Eleven of the reports propose to avoid important stages in the fish life-cycle (mostly spawning). In 17 of the reports an acoustic startle system and/or soft start procedure during pile-driving are recommended to drive fish out of the construction zone, meaning that they are not impacted by turbidity, noise, etc. In 14 reports it is claimed that this measure can frighten fish but that they usually come back to the site when construction is finished.

Loss of seabed is tiny and does not threaten species. The reef effect outweighs any loss

Anne-Charlotte Vaissière, IFREMER, UMR AMURE, Marine Economics Unit, ZI Pointe du Diable, France, et al, September 2014, “Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe,” Marine Policy, vol. 48, pp. 172–183.

In 15 of the reports, the loss of seabed corresponding to the land use of piles (and scour protection when needed) is often considered negligible in comparison with the size of the seabed as a whole and the surface area of the wind farms. Additionally, 16 reports note that there are not many species in these sandy areas or that the species are not threatened. Most of the farms (20) claim that the benthos is resilient: seagrass recovers after a few years and there is a rapid recolonization and migration of animals from surrounding areas. In 7 of the reports, some species are described as being used to a changing dynamic environment and to high turbidity (e.g. polychaete worms and crustaceans). However, one reduction measure proposed in 10 reports is the use of a plough instead of water jetting for the cable installation, because it affects a smaller surface area and amount of sediment and keeps turbidity to a minimum. Five reports suggest that the reef effect around turbines is a positive outcome that offsets the loss of seabed. The reef effect is the creation of an artificial reef leading to an increase of biodiversity.

Cable installation effects are non-unique. There are lots of mitigation methods

Walter Musial, Principal Engineer, National Wind Technology Center at NREL and Bonnie Ram, Ram Power, L.L.C., September 2010, “Large-Scale Offshore Wind Power in the United States, Assessment of Opportunities and Barriers, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NERL), http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/40745.pdf, Accessed 5/10/2014

Transmission cable installation may also impact fish and benthic communities. These construction effects are certainly not unique to the offshore wind industry, because the telecommunications and other electric power sectors also bury cables. Methods that minimize seabed disturbance through cable trenching and burial are recommended for offshore wind construction. Several options minimizing the impacts on fish and the benthic communities from cable installation include using proven construction methods for reducing the effect of structures and cables on existing fish stocks, food sources, and spawning activities; using antiscouring substrate at the foundation bases to mitigate erosion; and placing cables in a fishing exclusion zone. Considering potential impacts during structure foundation design could also minimize scouring, sediment redistribution, and current flow.

A2: Avian Collisions

Bird collisions are unproven with multiple alternate causes and most just avoid them

Anthony Bicknell, Ph.D., Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre at the Plymouth Marine Institute, Plymouth University, et al., June 19, 2013, “Marine Renewables, Biodiversity and Fisheries,” Plymouth Marine Institute at Plymouth University, http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/ default/files/downloads/marine_ renewables_biodiver.pdf, Accessed 5/12/2014

Mortality of birds through collision with MRE devices may have direct population-level impacts. However, quantifying collision rates (inferred mortality) for different species at offshore installations is a major constraint to assessing its impact. Novel survey methods, such as radar and infrared detection systems, are now being applied and developed for offshore wind-farms, but there are still limited data on collision rates. Research indicates the risk of collisions is likely to be species and site specific, and affected by many factors: flight behavior (e.g. altitude and manoeuvrability), avoidance ability, proximity of migratory corridors and/or feeding areas, weather conditions and structure lighting. In addition, age and reproductive stage may affect collision risk, and different mortality between age classes may lead to quite different population-level impacts. Overall, for offshore wind-farms the evidence suggests that avoidance (see Displacement and barriers to movement) is the most likely cause of negative impact on local bird abundance (with much site and species variation) rather than a direct effect of collision.

The benefits to fish stocks and climate change outweigh the negligible possibility of avian collisions

Robert Furness, PhD, Professor, and Senior Research Fellow at the University of Glasgow & Principle Ornithologist, MacArthur Green Ltd., et al., June 19, 2013, “Marine Renewables, Biodiversity and Fisheries,” Plymouth Marine Institute at Plymouth University, http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/ default/files/downloads/marine_ renewables_biodiver.pdf, Accessed 5/12/2014

MRE will necessarily play an important role in providing the clean, low carbon energy needed to reduce global carbon emissions and combat climate change. However, the environmental benefits, where possible, should not come at detrimental impacts on marine ecosystems and species. The evidence suggests MRE developments will have both direct and indirect negative effects on certain breeding and migrating birds but whether these will cause population level impacts is still unclear, and any impacts need to be put into the context of potentially larger effects of climate change and variations in fishing activity. The potential for cumulative effects of multiple arrays is one of the major concerns associated with MRE and long-term, wide scale studies are required to elucidate any impacts on bird populations. Mitigating potential impacts can only be done at the planning stage of MRE developments and would require both local and international consultation. The impact on bird populations, however, does not seem to be entirely negative and potential positive effects may counter these detrimental effects and enhance local habitat and benefit populations.

A2: Avian Collisions

Current evidence says no collisions and mitigation efforts take out the impact

Anthony Bicknell, Ph.D., Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre at the Plymouth Marine Institute, Plymouth University, et al., June 19, 2013, “Marine Renewables, Biodiversity and Fisheries,” Plymouth Marine Institute at Plymouth University, http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/ default/files/downloads/marine_ renewables_biodiver.pdf, Accessed 5/12/2014

Further research is required on the collision risk with MRE installations, and a standardised framework for assessment would help enable meta-analyses of impacts over multiple sites. The current evidence suggests the impact is low and, in isolation, will be unlikely to have population-level impacts. It should not however be underestimated for vulnerable and/or migratory species and may contribute to potential cumulative effects (see Cumulative effects) which can be potentially mitigated by the thoughtful siting of wind-farms.

Danish studies prove avoidance only causes trivial energetic costs

Anthony Bicknell, Ph.D., Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre at the Plymouth Marine Institute, Plymouth University, et al., June 19, 2013, “Marine Renewables, Biodiversity and Fisheries,” Plymouth Marine Institute at Plymouth University, http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/ default/files/downloads/marine_ renewables_biodiver.pdf, Accessed 5/12/2014

An increase in flight distance while foraging or migrating to avoid a MRE installation will have a higher energetic cost to birds. In many species, reproductive success is related to body condition, so any reduction in mass resulting from increased flight requirements could be detrimental and directly impact breeding success and population size. A study of ~200,000 migrating common eiders at a Danish offshore wind-farm recorded flight trajectory changes that corresponded to an increase of 500m to a 1400km journey. The increase in energetic cost was found to be trivial and only an avoidance response equivalent to 100 similar size wind-farms would cause detectable change in bird body mass. The intrinsic cost of flight, however, varies between species, as does the energetic requirements and constraints of foraging, so this needs to be considered when assessing possible impacts of MRE installations. Moreover, cumulative effects of regular avoidance of MRE installations (e.g. during foraging or provisioning flights, multiple site on migration), may increase the energetic cost and significantly affect body condition, survival or reproduction in certain species.

A2: Noise Pollution

There’s no impact to noise. Marine mammals are used to it and effects are temporary

Anne-Charlotte Vaissière, IFREMER, UMR AMURE, Marine Economics Unit, ZI Pointe du Diable, France, et al, September 2014, “Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe,” Marine Policy, vol. 48, pp. 172–183.

Noise and vibration can affect marine mammals’ health if they are on the site (hearing damage). Moreover, because fish are also leaving the site, food resources for marine mammals can decrease temporarily. Most of the reports note that marine mammals usually avoid the site during construction work. Thirteen reports propose avoiding periods of high frequentation by marine mammals (breeding and molting) or limiting disturbance when mammals are present. A Marine Mammals Observer can be used to determine if activity must be temporarily halted because of the presence of marine mammals. In 24 of the reports an acoustic startle system and/or a soft start procedure during pile-driving are recommended to drive marine mammals out of the construction zone. At least 5 reports propose the use of an air bubble curtain so that animals will not be impacted by noise and vibration. Nineteen reports note that this measure can frighten marine mammals but that they usually return fairly quickly after the construction work (even between pile-driving sessions) because they become accustomed to it. The noise and vibration are also quite comparable to existing activity in the region (marine traffic, dredging, oil platforms, etc.) according to at least 4 reports. Lastly, for 7 farms in the United Kingdom, marine mammals are said to be not very numerous, so there should be no significant impact in their case.

There are mitigation measures to overcome noise and the impacts are short term with wind power

Manuela Truebano, Ph.D., Lecturer in Marine Biology at the Plymouth Marine Institute, Plymouth University, et al., June 19, 2013, “Marine Renewables, Biodiversity and Fisheries,” Plymouth Marine Institute at Plymouth University, http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/ default/files/downloads/marine_ renewables_biodiver.pdf, Accessed 5/12/2014

Based on the studies presented, there is evidence that noise during the construction of wind farms can cause physical damage to individuals in close proximity to the source, trigger changes in behavior at greater distances, and lead to temporary displacement. Mitigation measures are available to minimise the effects of pile driving. For wind farms, the initial construction noise may induce avoidance reactions, with later return of the fish to the habitat, provided the sound levels are low and allow habituation to take place. Other MRE devices are less understood. Neither wave nor tide use pile driving to locate devices and so concerns during construction may be minimised. Operational noise for most such devices, however, is yet to be measured.

A2: Noise Pollution

Fish will get accustomed to noise and vibrations, while the reef effect will offset

Anne-Charlotte Vaissière, IFREMER, UMR AMURE, Marine Economics Unit, ZI Pointe du Diable, France, et al, September 2014, “Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe,” Marine Policy, vol. 48, pp. 172–183.

Underwater noise and vibration from the turbine rotors disturb fish. They can also be sensitive to the electromagnetic field generated by the cables. These two impacts are not well described at the moment but may represent a health risk for fish and will probably lead them to avoid offshore wind farms. The impact is likely to vary depending on the species, and some migratory fish may be disturbed. In 11 reports it is claimed that fish will get accustomed to noise and vibration. In 19 reports, the reef effect is expected to benefit the fish by providing them with more food resources: they are attracted by the colonized turbine piles and scour foundations (this is called the ―fish aggregating device effect‖ in some reports). A ban on fishing is proposed around at least 16 wind farms, which ought to create a reserve effect on fish populations. The reserve effect is the protection of a zone by prohibiting extracting activities like fishing. Generally, very little is known about the impact of electromagnetic fields. Twelve reports from British wind farms propose to bury, insulate, or armor the cables so as to reduce the magnitude of their electromagnetic field.

New technologies will mitigate noise

Martin Attrill, Professor and Director of Plymouth Marine Institute, Plymouth University, June 19, 2013, “Marine Renewables,

Biodiversity and Fisheries,” Plymouth Marine Institute at Plymouth University, http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/marine_ renewables_biodiver.pdf, Accessed 5/12/2014

New technologies for offshore wind may significantly mitigate the levels of noise from construction and operation. The development and use of suction pile foundations may significantly mitigate construction noise impacts, as could a move towards floating wind turbine technology, which would remove the need for major pile driving (although moorings need fixing) and there are designs for offshore, vertical axis wind turbines much more suitable for marine conditions and floating platforms. These newer technologies should be encouraged as they are likely to be a better ecological option, reducing the unequivocally most damaging aspect of MRE developments, which is pile-driving during construction.

Noise pollution risks have alternate causes. There’s only a risk facilities will be good for fish

Manuela Truebano, Ph.D., Lecturer in Marine Biology at the Plymouth Marine Institute, Plymouth University, et al., June 19, 2013, “Marine Renewables, Biodiversity and Fisheries,” Plymouth Marine Institute at Plymouth University, http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/ default/files/downloads/marine_ renewables_biodiver.pdf, Accessed 5/12/2014

Masking of fish communicative signals during operation is a possibility for some species which use low-frequency sounds, comparable to the low frequency part (95 Hz) of the pile-driving pulse. However, given the level of marine anthropogenic noise in general, it would be difficult to disentangle those effects associated with MRE devices, if any. Studies on the potential long term effects of stress due to an increased noise level and effects of noise disturbance on fish spawning are lacking. For benthic communities, the colonisation of wind turbines is taken as an indication that noise and vibration have no detrimental effects on the attached fauna.