The Biology of
Brassica napus L. (canola) and Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss. (Indian mustard)
Version 2.1: February 2017
This document provides an overview of baseline biological information relevant to risk assessment of genetically modified forms of the species that may be released into the Australian environment. Cover photo of canola courtesy of Brian Weir.
For information on the Australian Government Office of the Gene Technology Regulator visit
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Table of Contents
Abbreviations used in this document 4
Preamble 5
Section 1 Taxonomy 6
1.1 Brassicaceae family 6
1.2 Brassica genus 6
Section 2 Origin and cultivation 8
2.1 Centre of origin, diversity and domestication 8
2.2 Production and commercial uses 9
2.3 Cultivation in Australia 10
2.3.1 Commercial propagation 10
2.3.2 Scale of cultivation 11
2.3.3 Potential for expansion of B. napus and B. juncea growing regions 13
2.3.4 Cultivation practices 16
2.4 Crop Improvement 19
2.4.1 Breeding in Australia 21
2.4.2 Genetic modification 26
Section 3 Morphology 26
3.1 Plant morphology 26
3.2 Reproductive morphology 27
Section 4 Development 28
4.1 Reproduction 28
4.2 Pollination and pollen dispersal 28
4.3 Fruit/seed development and seed dispersal 29
4.3.1 Fruit and seed development 29
4.3.2 Seed dispersal 30
4.4 Seed germination and seed dormancy 31
4.5 Vegetative growth 34
Section 5 Biochemistry 35
5.1 Toxins 35
5.1.1 Erucic acid 35
5.1.2 Glucosinolates 36
5.2 Allergens 37
5.3 Other undesirable phytochemicals 38
5.4 Beneficial phytochemicals 38
Section 6 Abiotic Interactions 40
6.1 Abiotic stresses 40
6.1.1 Nutrient stress 40
6.1.2 Heavy metals 40
6.1.3 Temperature, water and salinity stress 41
Section 7 Biotic Interactions 41
7.1 Weeds 41
7.2 Pests and pathogens 42
7.2.1 Pests 42
7.2.2 Pathogens 42
Section 8 Weediness 45
8.1 Weediness status on a global scale 45
8.2 Weediness status in Australia 45
8.2.1 Cultivated areas 47
8.2.2 Non-cropped disturbed habitats 48
8.2.3 Undisturbed natural habitats 48
8.3 Control measures 49
8.4 Weed risk assessment of B. napus and B. juncea 49
Section 9 Potential for Vertical Gene Transfer 50
9.1 Pollen flow and cross-pollination rates 50
9.2 Intraspecific crossing 50
9.2.1 Crosses with oilseed subspecies 51
9.2.2 Crosses with vegetables and forage rape subspecies 52
9.3 Interspecific crossings 52
9.4 Intergeneric crossings 56
9.5 Bridging as a means of gene transfer 57
References 59
Appendix 1 Weed Risk Assessment 80
Abbreviations used in this document
ACT Australian Capital Territory
AFLP Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism
AOF Australian Oilseed Federation
APVMA Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority
ASA Australian Seeds Authority
BWYV Beet western yellows virus
CaMV Cauliflower mosaic virus
Canola Canadian oil, low acid
CMS Cytoplasmic male sterility
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
DPI Department of Primary Industry
FSANZ Food Standards Australia New Zealand
GM Genetically modified
GRDC Grains Research & Development Corporation
ha Hectare
HOLL High Oleic, Low Linolenic
IT Imidazolinone tolerant
ITC Isothiocyanates
ITSA International Seed Testing Association
Mbp Megabase pair
Mya Million years ago
n Haploid number of chromosomes
NGS Next Generation Sequencing
NSW New South Wales
NT Northern Territory
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PTDI Provisional Tolerable Daily Intake
QLD Queensland
QTL Quantitative Trait Locus
RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms
RNA Ribonucleic acid
SA South Australia
SNP Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
spp. Species
SRAP Sequence Related Amplified Polymorphism
SSR Simple Sequence Repeat
TAS Tasmania
TILLING Target Induced Local Lesions in Genomes
TT Triazine Tolerant
TuMV Turnip mosaic virus
TuYV Turnip yellows virus
VIC Victoria
WA Western Australia
Preamble
This document describes the biology of Brassica napus L. and B. juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss., with particular reference to the Australian environment, cultivation and use. Information included relates to the taxonomy and origins of cultivated B. napus and B. juncea, general descriptions of their morphology, reproductive biology, biochemistry, and biotic and abiotic interactions. This document also addresses the potential for gene transfer to occur to closely related species. The purpose of this document is to provide baseline information about the parent organisms for use in risk assessments of genetically modified B. napus and B. juncea that may be released into the Australian environment.
The term ‘canola’ is derived from Canadian oil, low acid, proposed by the Western Canadian Oilseed Crushers’ Association in 1978 to refer to varietiesa of B. napus with low erucic acid and glucosinolate content. In 1980, the trademark was transferred to the Canola Council of Canada (Eskin 2013). Canola now refers to three Brassica species that meet these compositional criteria: B. napus (also known as Argentine canola); B. rapa (also known as Polish canola); and B. juncea (also known as Indian mustard). For the purpose of this document, B. napus canola and B. juncea canola will be used to refer respectively to oilseed varieties of B. napus and B. juncea that meet internationally agreed compositional criteria. Canola will be used as a generic term to designate both species. Varieties not meeting agreed compositional criteria will be referred to as rapeseed and/or Indian mustard.
Canola is grown primarily as an oilseed, from which oil is extracted. The oil is used for cooking and in food products such as margarine. Canola seeds yield 35-45% oil. A by-product of the oil extraction process is the generation of a high-protein meal that may be used as animal feed. Worldwide, canola is the third most important edible vegetable oil crop after soybean and palm oil and the third most important oil meal crop after soybean and cotton (Snowdon et al. 2007).
The highest annual canola production occurs in the European Union, China, Canada, and Australia. Initial trials in Australia of B. napus and B. rapa began in the early 1960s, with the two crops first grown commercially in 1969. It was another decade before canola varieties became available. Today, in Australia commercial B. napus canola production occurs mainly in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia, with an area of over 2.7 million hectares planted in 2013-2014 (ABARES 2015). The distribution of B. napus canola production coincides with the wheat belt, with B. napus often grown as a break crop between cereal rotations.
B. juncea, commonly known as Indian mustard (or rai) (OECD 2012) is cultivated worldwide as a condiment (mustard), oilseed or vegetable crop with the greatest commercial production occurring in India and Canada. In Australia, commercial production occurs on a relatively small scale with several thousand hectares planted annually in western Victoria, central New South Wales and/or South Australia.
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