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4. To prototypes of drawing The previous developments have shown that the drawing is a flexible object which combines an intellectual operation and hardware in a discursive framework and of receipt given. This complexity seems to render futile any attempt to create an inductive typology of different types of drawing. It seems more appropriate to take the problem has upside down and begin by addressing the existing typologies (4.1 ) before the combine between them and with the previous analyzes in order to build " prototypes " of drawing (4.2 ). 60 See the article by Olson et al. (2003) which deals with the political debate around the introduction of gambling in the state of and which has mobilized arguments based on an interpretation finalist and moral of the draw: " Summary: In this article we offer a history of the religious aspects of the lottery debate in South Carolina and an empirical look at the relationships between religious factors and support for the lottery among South Carolina voters. ≪ 61See the classic work of Headlam (1891) on Athens and recent studies of Manin (1997), Dowlen (2008a) or Buchstein (2009a) which also deal well of Athens that of Florence and Venice. 69 Chapter 1: a typology of the prize draw 4.1Review of existing typologies A review of the literature on the subject allows you to identify 16 proposals typological dividing into four groupes62. The authors of the first group are concentrated on the question of the nature of the draw and attempt to delineate its own characters, that is why these typologies will be here characterized of intrinsic. In counterpoint to this approach have been presented typologies of procedural, that is, if interesting to different objects of the draw and has its forms as hardware operation. In an approach focusing more on the intellectual operation, some authors have proposed typologies functional. Finally, some authors intermixed the approaches and propose typologies combined.
In this approach, the typology is intended to identify the line of demarcation between the drawing and the other types of distribution process, focusing on the question of the nature and specific characteristics of the drawing. The authors adopting this approach differentiate first between procedures non-random (market, vote, review) and random, then prints between natural and artificial or between prints has risk and uncertain (Stone 2009a, see also point 1.4 , p. 43)63. They are continuing with the identification of the intrinsic properties of the draw, in particular that of prints " fair " on. And Sher (1980) he argued a series of criteria to differentiate the drawings fair and unfair. An approach followed also by Kornhauser & Sager (1988) or Stone (2006). The presentation the most systematic of this type of categorization has been performed by Goodwin (2005). However, by focusing on the intrinsic nature of the draw, these typologies are at risk to minimize the fact that the latter is in large part determined by extrinsic manner (by the games engineering procedural, justifications and interpretations) and that the notion of justice is subject to controversy. 4.1 .2typologies procedural In this type of approach, the focus is on the hardware part of the operation and the drawings are classified according to their " object " and according to the " uses " on, it is-a-say depart of ques62For For bibliographic items more systematic, cf. chapter 2. In addition, some authors use a different typologies. In this case, they are presented here according to the importance they attach to one or the other approach. 63See also supra, p. 41 et seq. 70 4. To prototypes of drawing TIONS of the " what " and the " how " on. Bromberger & Ravis (1987, 130-135) propose as well to separate the drawings in two " major types of procedures " on : the first " which fall within the jurisdiction of the prints to the spells " on, it is-a-say in which it is to distribute a well or a position, and the second grouped under the designation of " games of chance and of hardworking ≪, category which is understandable to itself. The difference between the two residing mainly in the fact that the " players " are voluntarily in a draw, unlike the " actors " of the first category who are returning because they are members of a " group " on. Most of the players are participating in the drawing by a implementation of substance, agreed in advance that the outcome of the game is translated into inequality and have the option to go out and get into the game at any time. Elster as has him, begun in his seminal article (1987), reprinted in a book later (1989, p. 78 and s.) by will install two general questions on the draw the first of which concerned its usages64. It performs has this title a first division between drawing has individual use and has social use. Further, it separates the prints has social use depending on the item distributed: stains, resources and expenses. It distinguishes finally a pool of six cases of uses in politics: to choose the representatives, to choose the laws, to choose who to sue, to choose the judges or jurors, to choose the verdict and the penalty and to choose which punish. Dowlen (2008a, 215-232) in focusing on the distribution of political posts, trace several lines of hyphenation. The first, temporal, between the practices of type Athenians and those of commons medieval and republicanismes post-medieval. The second, systemic, between the political entities that have used the draw in a systematic manner and those having employee on an occasional basis. Finally the last located at a higher level between " uses strong " in which the nature arationelle the draw is a sine qua non and positive and uses " weak " in which the nature arationelle is secondary, it is-a-say is not required or is in conflict with other principles (Dowlen 2008a, 11), as this may be the case at a draw to decide between two candidates after an election. The contribution of these typologies procedural is central to a comprehensive understanding of the circulation: they isolate the hardware part of the operation and to concentrate on the practices in pulling clear lines depending on the item in game, for example. Thus the division between drawings concerning property, posts and the decisions made by Elster 64 Elster (1987, 108): " First, when aer lotteries actually used to make decisions and to allocate tasks, resources, and burdens? ... Second, under which conditions would they seem to be normatively allowed gold prescribed it grounds of individual rationality or social justice? ≪ 71 Chapter 1: a typology of the prize draw (1989) and resumed at the beginning of this chapter is particularly relevant by its simplicity and its synthetic aspect. However, in highlighting both the emphasis on the procedure, they tend to relativize the discursive section of the draw. 4.1.3 The functional typologies It is precisely to answer this question of the speech that se are employees a series of authors by adopting a functional approach of the draw as well in its dimension of "for what " on that of " why ". The functional typology is interested therefore has the purpose of the prize draw. And Aubert (1959) does he propose four functions of the circulation: communication with the supernatural, innovation and creativity, the representativeness and the equality and justice. On his side Wasserman (1996) differentiates between a function of distributive equality ex ante (division of chances of receiving the batch) and a prophylactic function, i.e. which avoids that bad reasons fall into the decision process. It also identifies a function " expressive " which corresponds to the fact that the drawing may, under conditions, to express that the organizers undertake to treat applicants equally. More recently, Buchstein (2009a, 295-335) presented a " typology mit sieben Argumentationsfiguren, die sich einzeln oder in Bundeln zu Gunsten of Loses vorbringen lassen " on which he has faced has a " Kaskade kritischer Einwande " on65. These schemes which it has already presented the elements in a dispersed manner in the beginning of the chapter are the following: " das Los ist ein neutraler und verfahrensautonomer Mechanismus (1), es ist unbedingt treffsicher (2), es ist kostengunstig (3), es Entscheidungstrager entlastet und Entscheidungsunterworfene (4), es produces Kreativitat und produktive Unsicherheiten (5), es schafft Märkte gesellschaftliche Stabilitat (6) und es verfugt uber eine Art Rationalitat zweiter Ordnung, die in bestimmten Situation eine Entscheidung erst uberhaupt moglich macht (7) " on66. Without dwelling on the discussion of the figures they-even, it will be noted that this typology allows to include combinations of arguments that give meaning to the operation of justification of the draw. It is in the presence of 65" I arrived as well has a typology comprising seven figures anything economically exploitable which are - alone or in groups - presented in favor of the prize draw. Subsequently, these seven schemes supporting documents are confronted with has a cascade of critical remarks ≪ (Buchstein 2009a, 295). 66" The draw is a neutral mechanism and be procedurally autonomous (1), it is without specific conditions (2), it is economic (3), it partially discharging the decision makers and the persons subject to the decisions (4), it generates the creativity and the insecurities productive (5), it creates political stability (6) and it has a rationality of second order, which - in certain situations - is only one has even make decision-making as possible (7) ≪ (Buchstein 2009a, 296). 72 4. To prototypes of drawing Actual anything economically exploitable frames that we will resume later in the formulation of prototype drawing. The whole of these taxonomies has the great advantage of allowing an understanding of the speech on the printout, and in relation to each other. But they have two limitations which the first is logical: in is interesting has the discursive dimension of the operation, they leave physical handling in the background. Very often, however, these latter play a crucial role in the procedural blocks based on the drawing. A block based on a draw with possibility of refusal of the result relativizes any argument based on the character of inclusion. In addition, it seems clear that the prize draw has often been used in an intuitive way. It is a procedure repeatedly reinvented and happens often of articulated speech. The second limit of functional typologies has been put forward by Molino (1987, 142) : " In other words, after you have isolated the operations based on a random regarded as immutable reality and clear, it goes directly to the study of functions, and we tried to explain the use of the operation through its functions by not giving the meanings experienced that a role annex, secondary. But it is important not to remain the and see what means the chance for the men of a given culture. ≪ In effect, it seems that the attention given to the functions of the draw tend to minimize the importance accorded to the reception, it is-a-say has the interpretation of the random phenomenon, by the actors. 4.1.4 Typologies combined The Treaty on the spells of Thomas Aquinas (Of Sortibus) opens on a announced a plan very clear: " We are going to examine in what place are the spells, what is their end, their mode, their virtue, and finally if the Christian religion allows you to use. ≪ Are thus crossed a procedural approach (in what places and depending on what mode), functional (their end and their virtue) and " interpretative " concerning the right to use it. Be procedurally, Aquinas distinguishes (chapter 3) the acts of prophecy, of necromancy and " certain experiences they (the people drawing lots] attempt, as a certain proof of the event that they are waiting " on67. Functionally, it divided between " the sharing of terrestrial objects, which then refers to the fate divisoire ", " what must be done, which depends on the fate consultatoire " and " the preaching 67As an example of the first category Aquinas cited the fact to be " lit in a dream " by God. The second category refers for example to the fact to base its predictions " on the movements and the cries of some animals or the manner in which it sneezes " on. As an example of the third category, Aquinas cited the fact of putting " of tickets in a ballot box, which each bear a registration and others are in white, and that it is drawn at random, to know what should happen ". 73 Chapter 1: a typology of the prize draw For the future, which, in this case, belongs to the fate divining ≪ (chapter 4). While noting earlier that the function and virtue main spells is to reveal the " divine providence " on. Finally Aquinas defines two additional categories, that of spells allowed and not allowed (Chapter V). Four centuries later, Gataker has also proposed a joint typology based on " nature " and the " practice " on the draw. Regarding the nature, it identifies the drawing natural and artificial. When he is interested in the uses, it divided - as Aquinas - between " legal " and " non-legal " on the " eyes of God ". It is to know in what cases it is legitimate to use the spells. Molino (1987, 140-141) has proposed a typology has two dimensions. The first, procedural, the led has distinguish seven usages: distributing goods, distribute the roles and social functions, highlight the guilty, predict the future, indicate what decision an individual must take, play and bet. It complements this list by an intellectual dimension centered on the question of the receipt and identifies five " schemes " on conceptual to understand " how the random is lived " on. Sintomer (2007, 135-139) is limited to the distribution of loads and functions and formula a grid of analysis in terms of logical "policies " on, five in number: " The prize draw can be interpreted in a religious perspective or supernatural, in particular as a divine sign ... the random selection can also be thought as an impartial method to resolve a controversial issue ... The draw can still be conceived as a procedure favoring the self-government of all by all, each being a tower of role governing and governed ... in a slightly different way, the prize draw can be seen as ensuring that the power on all is assumed by everyone, i.e. by individuals interchangeable with other because having recourse to the " common sense " on. (One last logical think the prize] as a way to select a representative sample of the population, a sort of microcosm which can nodding, evaluate, judge and possibly decide on behalf of the community, or all may not take part in the deliberation and or heterogeneity social prohibited to believe that all individuals are interchangeable " on. More recently, Delannoi (2010) presented a typology combining " uses " and " use values " on. The first are five in number: the polls, the rotation, the neutralization of a procedure, the allocation of resources, the saving of time and means. The second, the values of use, focus on five effects: consultative, deliberative, impartiality, participatory and as a response to the scarcity. By crossing the two dimensions, it puts forward what uses are combined with what effects. The rotation is married well with the participation and the impartiality but less suitable to the consultation and has the deliberation. 74 4. To prototypes of drawing This review allows you to draw three conclusions. First, the typologies combined appear to be of the most has same to account for the complexity of the operations of drawing because they bring into relationship its different dimensions in a dynamic manner. Secondly, the analysis has shown that each of these taxonomies is concentrated (voluntarily or not) on an aspect of the drawing by leaving aside a part of the items, a part of the proceedings, justifications or of the reception. It is therefore, thirdly, based on existing typologies and in supplementing them by the results obtained in the first part of the chapter concerning the material operations of drawing and the question of justification and of the interpretation that we will be able to continue the typological work. 4.2A typology in terms of prototypes The practice of drawing modern and old, theoretical and have existing for common point of insertion into procedural blocks more or less complex which was presented the main dimensions. In the course of this work it became clear that the drawing is a process that has no own nature. There is a whole dynamic of justifications coupled has a series of procedures and subject to interpretation. These characteristics prevent the construction of a standard typology aimed has create categories exclusive, necessary and sufficient. That is why we have opted for an approach inspired by the theory of prototypes in the cognitive sciences, originally developed by Rosch (1973 ; 1975). A prototype can be defined as the best example of a lexical category in a language community. It is " a medium form, characterized by the attributes the more typical ≪ (Girard 2006, 296). The sparrow will be as well in Europe most often cited that the ostrich as a prototype of the category bird. Such an approach allows you to focus at the representativeness of the categories and leaves their borders open. This helps to show a continuum in which each case is special approach of the one or the other prototype, or even of several. As the said Rosch (1978, 36) : " In the terms of the principles of categorization previously proposed, the cognitive economy imposes that the categories tend to be seen as the most distinct from each other and according to the cuts the net more possible. One of the ways to achieve this lies in the establishment of criteria that are necessary and sufficient for membership categorial ( ... ). Another way to achieve a clear separability between categories that are, in fact, ongoing, is to design each category in terms of its most obvious cases rather than in the context of its borders " on. 75 Chapter 1: a typology of the prize draw It is therefore in search of the case prototypiques of drawing that we will we start now. It will not be possible to find the illustrations for each intersection of categories but this is precisely the interest of the work with the prototypes. 4.3Proposal of typology The construction of the typology incorporates the elements of the whole of the chapter for the combine according to a series of large lines of division, the most basic is the one between hardware operation (4.3.1 ) and intellectual (4.3.2 ) of the prize draw.
4.3.1 .1Prints natural and artificial The analysis of the physical operation has enabled us to formulate a succession of divisions that will be repeated here and the first of which is the one between prints natural and artificial (cf. supra, point 1.4 , p. 43). Therefore, there is a side the reading and interpretation of a configuration produced by the random (natural draft) and on the other the establishment of a prize draw with options (draw artificial). 4.3.1 .2Prints political and non-political The second division is the one between political practices and non-politiques68. The first aim the distribution of limited resources. The second include first of all the whole of fun practices which have a purpose of entertainment and specific characteristics such as the fact of having to build or to be of nature facultative69. The drawings non policies also include the cleros in the framework of scientific experiments, including medical (Schwartz 1991). The drawings made in the framework of polls are a problem. They are not directly policies since they do not aim that the obtaining of a representative sample according to the scientific method. But they can be included in a procedural block highly political. We must therefore make the difference by taking into account the object of the survey in question. 68See Bromberger & Ravis (1987, 130-135) or Elster (1987, 108). 69However, there is a relationship at least has two levels between these two categories. First, historically the games of loto have their origin in the lottery policy genoise (Bellhouse 1991) and secondly, the draw in politics is often perceived and criticized as a " game of chance " or a lottery and this association probably has an important influence on the reception of the draw in these frameworks. 76 4. To prototypes of drawing 4.3.1 .3lotteries The previous distinctions allow to focus finally on the heart prints policies, those in which it is to distribute the limited resources. By combining the analysis made at the beginning of the chapter (points 1 to 3) with the typologies outlined then (4.1 ), we can identify three types of drawing by differentiating according to the item they concern. As well when it comes to distribute batches of material and immaterial, we will take the term lottery that is intuitively and usually associated with this type of procedures. A further distinction can be made between the cases in which it is necessary to distribute the goods - organ transplants or the places was the university for example - and those in which it is necessary to distribute of evils such as this may be the case when the conscription. Sometimes, the lotteries operate according to the principle of the mors tua vita mea, that is, the distribution of a well has a person is automatically compensated by that of a poorly has another (Cireze 1995). 4.3.1 .4The advisory prints In the framework or the item submitted a distribution is a decision between several alternatives, the term of Thomas Aquinas of advisory drawing seems appropriate. The advisory prints seem to be able to divide between two major categories outlined by Elster: the drawings individual and social . This division is not the only possible but it seems very relevant given the difference between the two areas. The case of social decision-making by drawing seem be largely absent from the practice then that individual decisions are much more repandues70. 70The best known example of the drawing social is probably that of the Swedish parliament which had in the years 60 recourse to the draw to decide the adoption or rejection of texts because of a perfect equality of seats between two opposing political parties. 77 Chapter 1: a typology of the prize draw Hardware Operation: the types of drawing Natural Draft - Cleromancie Draw non-policy Lots and Decisions Posts Draw policy Lottery Property
Headache Advisory Drawing Individual Collective Sortition and drawing elective Legislative / constitutional Executive Judicial
Deliberative / advisory Elective Post Draw artificial - Cleros Drawing not policy Lots and Decisions Posts
Draw policy Lottery
Property Headache
Advisory Drawing Individual Collective Sortition and drawing elective Legislative / constitutional Executive Judicial Deliberative / advisory Elective Post
4.3.1 .5The drawings elective: Sortition and drawing of Posts The printout may finally be employee to elect someone, i.e. choose among a group of candidates a person in particular. We can differentiate between two situations. The first when the draw is used to distribute political posts - loads or honors - in which case there will be talk of sortition71. The term is a neologism in French but it is widespread in the literature anglo-saxon and it will subsequently. The sortition is the category which we more interested in the result of the work and we will have the opportunity to return to them in detail. It brings together a wide range of practices that can be decline in resuming the classical separation mentioned above (cf. 1.1 , p. 37). The second case concerned 71Carson & Martin (1999, 1) : " Finally there is the term "Sortition," which means the act of casting lots, which can be used to refer to choosing decision makers by batch, lottery, or random selection. ≪ 78 4. To prototypes of drawing The election has functions of non-political, that is commonly called the jobs (the joblottery for example). We can also place in this category the case of prints for a post of " voluntary chosen to office ", for a dangerous mission for example. 4.3 .2The intellectual operation The intellectual dimension of a draw returns just as much has the justification (cf. 3.1 , p. 54) that has the reception (cf. 3.2 , p. 64) of the latter. By incorporating the elements of analysis previously proposed and grace at the crossing of existing typologies, it is possible to identify a series of " frames" on anything economically exploitable72 which correspond to the combination between a series of arguments in favor of the draw and a certain tendency in his interpretation (finalist, deterministic, probabilistic). To avoid repetition, we put his feet from now the frames anything economically exploitable with the physical operations in order to introduce directly the final series of prototypes of the draw in politics (marked in bold in the following and summarized in the illustrations 9, 10, and 11, p. 79 and p. 86-87). Physical Dimension of the draw Intellectual Dimension of the draw Series of arguments for the draw + type of receipt = Frame was debate => Hardware Operation => Yüklə 3,57 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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