Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

The Khariji and Berber Rebellions in North Africa
We now turn towards the events in the West. At first, there was peace and prosperity in the vast province of Kairowan. Even some victories were won by the Muslim arms. In 734 A.D. the Arabs had conquered the Black Country, i.e. Sudan. In 741 A.D., the Arabs conquered Sardania and Syracuse in Sicily. But soon after, a violent rebellion broke out in North Africa.
When the Kharijis had been repeatedly defeated in Iraq, Persia and Arabia, a large number of them fled to the vast regions of North Africa. Maddened by their fanaticism and bigotry, bitterly hateful of the Umayyads for their merciless persecutions, the Khariji
Muhammad Arshad, Islamic History, P 203.

434 Political and Cultural History of Islam

zealots denounced their oppressors as worse than Kafirs, and proclaimed as usual a war of extermination against the Umayyads. The Berbers, who had by now adopted Islam, went over to the Kharijis. The reason was the Jazya. Like the governors of Khurasan, the governor of the Maghrib, at Tangiers, continued to collect the Jazya from the Berber Muslims which roused their fury. They were incited by the Kharijis who declared that the Umayyads were more interested in collecting wealth than in Islam. Hence both the Kharijis and the Berbers rose in revolt at Tangiers, in the extreme west, and marched upon Kairowan in 736 A.D. Though an Arab force under Ibn Habib, tried to halt their advance, but it was cut down almost to a man by the immense horde of the Berbers and the Kharijis.
The news of this reverse angered Hisham who at once sent a Syrian army under his able commander, named Kulthum. But Kulthum was defeated and killed after some time. Now the Arabs were surrounded by the rebels in the capital, Kairowan, but they repulsed all attempts of the Berbers to capture the capital. Hisham then sent Hanzala bin Safwan, of the Kalbi (Yamani) tribe as the viceroy of Kairowan. On reaching the capital, Hanzala at once strengthened the defences and put courage in the hearts of the defenders. The Arabs were put to dire straits by fhe besiegers, but Hanzala was a hero of the old type. He infused a new spirit into the Arabs and raised a great force of soldiers and volunteers. At last, in

743 A.D., after a hard-fought battle, the Berbers and the zealots were utterly defeated. One hundred and eighty thousand of them were killed, along with their leaders. Thus Hanzala restored peace and order to North Africa. War in France, Battle of Tours (732 A.D.)

The Muslim arms continued to win victories in southern France in the time of Hisham’s predecessors. The governor of Spain, al-Hurr. had crossed the Pyrenees. Samh, in the reign of Umar, had captured Narbonne, but when he advanced further, he was beaten by Eudo, the Duke of Acquitaine in 721 A.D. In 726 A.D. he however, died in southern France. The Caliph Hisham sent Anbasa to Spain, which was now torn by the rivalry and feuds of the Arabs and the Berbers. Several more governors were sent, but the factions and fights did not end. At last, Hisham made Abdur Rahman al-Ghafki the governor of Spain. He was a man of courage and considerable abilities.
Hisham
435
He soon reconciled the quarrelling factions of the Modhar and Himyar, restored peace to Spain and reorganized the government of that province. But he was not negligent of the defence of French frontiers of the empire. The Berber governor of French possessions of the Arabs, named Munuza by the Europeans, whose name was Usman bin Abu Nissa, revolted against Abdur Rahman, joined with Eudo, the Duke of Acquitaine, and married his daughter. Abdur Rahman resolved to punish his insurrection and marched against him. Munuza was defeated and killed and his French wife was sent to Damascus as a gift to the Caliph who married her to his son.
After the defeat and death of Munuza, Abdur Rahman conceived a great plan to conquer the whole of France and thus emulate the great conquests of Tariq and Musa before him. He first subdued the little principality in south-western France. Then he attacked Eudo, the father-in-law of the dead Munuza and the Duke of Acquitaine, the biggest duchy in south France. He defeated the Duke, first at Aries and then at Bordeaux, the capital of the Duchy. Finally the Duke was defeated at Dordogue and fled to the northern France to seek the aid of the Prankish King, Charles Mattel. The Prankish King summoned a large army from his vast dominions in Austria and Germany and marched to the southr-In the meantime, the Arab army under Abdur Rahman advanced into Central France and captured the City of Tours by assault.5
The two forces met each other near Tours, in Oct., 732 A.D. For fifteen days they fought minor engagements. At last, one day, the Franks were forcefully attacked by the Arabs and were about to be defeated, when a cry arose that the Arab camp was captured by the enemy. This rumour made the Muslim soldiers to rush towards their camp to protect their vast treasures they had collected, leaving a small force under the commander to fight the Franks. Outnumbered by the Franks, this force was defeated and Abdur Rahman was himself killed on the battle-field. His death caused great confusion among the Arab army, which now retired to its camp. As night had fallen, Franks did not press their attack.
During the night, after serious disputes among the Arab and Berber commanders the Muslim army left for the southern France. Next day, the Franks also returned to their capital, leaving the Arabs in undisputed possession of the south-western France. The defeat at
’ Abdul Qadir, A Short History of Islam, Lahore, 1969, P. 102.

438 Political and Cultural History of Islam

the borders of the Caliphate, the rebels and insurgents, like the Berbers, the Kharijis and the Sogdians, were suppressed with difficulty. It indicated the decline in the military skill and power of the Umayyads.
Hisham spent his revenue in making canals, building castles and laying out gardens. He was tolerant to the Christians and had the highest respect for Hazrat AH. He refrained from reviling Hazrat AH when he was asked by one of Usman’s descendants on the occasion of pilgrimage. Himself a scholar he was a patron of arts and letters. A famous historian says, ”Hisham bin Abduj Malik, unquestionably one of the ablest of the Umayyad sovereigns, was as much a warrior as a scholar”. Salam who served him as Chief Secretary was a man of letters. But as a ruler he suffered from defects. He was suspicious and greedy. He trusted none and frequently changed his Governors and officers. As a result of his changing policy he lost some of the efficient and able Governors like Khalid al-Qasri. His greed for money led him to increase taxation to the utmost limit. The policy towards the increase of his income by selling the agricultural produce at a higher price and the ruthless suppression of the Alids’ revolt made him unpopular and worked^ against the interest of the Umayyad dynasty.
The Empire already undermined continued sinking in spite of the efforts of Hisham. This was the long and chequered Hisham’s reign, when Abbasid emissaries and Khariji theocrats continued to fan the flames of discontentment and disaffection against the Umayyads. Even Hisham’s virtues, mildness and justice could not check the decline of the Empire. He was generous but not extravagant and did not scatter largesses which injured his popularity. He refused to revile Hazrat AH when urged to do so by a descendant of Usman at Makkah. He was opposed to the Qadariyah teaching and punished those who did not believe in the Qur’an being eternal and rejected the doctrine of inspiration. He was himself pious and did not approve the dissolute character of his cousin and heir apparent Walid or his own son
Hisham
The region of Iraq was developed especially thrpugl engineering and drainage works of Hassan ai-Nabati. Hi developed agriculture and increased taxation at the risk o popularity. Although he spent lavishly on building canals, castle pleasure gardens and he left the treasury full. He was disliked fc bestowing largesses. He was mild, just, virtuous and generou not extravagant. Like the Berbers in North Africa, the Persian: Turks in Transoxiana were discontented. As a result ’Abl propagandists gained footing in the east and he left the Empire worse condition than that in which he had found it. With hir golden age of the Umayyads came to a close. He was the thirc last statesman of the Umayyad dynasty, the other two I Mu’awiya and Abdul Malik. During his time the empire extend its greatest limit particularly in Central Asia.
The caliph took interest in public works and di recreation hours he absorbed himself in music, poetry and the c Horse race as a national game was patronised by Hisham and ir of the courses organized by the Caiiph the number of racers rea

4,000. Even one of his daughters kept horses fof racing. Hi1 bestowed his patronage on the Christian Hunayn al-Hiri, dean c Iraq singers. He persecuted heresy and ordered the execution c Ja’d ibn Dirham for teaching that the Qur’an was created Ghaylan al-Dimashqi for preaching the doctrine of free will.6

Glubb says, ”He had been a diligent and scrupulous rule himself constantly examined the niib»v accounts and supervise administration. He was extremely painstaking in his legal decis In appearance, he was the thickest and suffered from a «nuin v\ia paitici!.larly interested in farming and passionately for horses- an open-air, practical country squire.” Masudi, one c earliest of the famous Arab historians, writes that Umaj produced three really great rulers, Mu’awiya I, Abdul Malik Hisham bin Abdul Malik.7
6 Abdul Qadir. A Short History of Islam, Lahore. 1969, P 102
7 John Bagot GiJibb, A Short History of the Arab Peoples London, 1969, P

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