Relationship between prejudice and some personal variables among secondary schools students in state of kuwait

1.4.3 The Metaphors of Intelligence Theories

The theories of intelligence can be classified in a number of different ways. One scheme is in terms of the metaphor of mind they presuppose. These metaphors characterize the grounds through which intelligence needs to be understood. Sternberg (1990) suggested that many theories can be viewed as falling under one of seven metaphors. These seven metaphors are:

First, the geographic metaphor is based on the notion that a theory of intelligence should provide a map of the mind (Brody, 2000, & Horn, 2006). Intelligence then comes to be defined in terms of underlying factors of the mind, which (Vernon, 1971) likened to lines of longitude and latitude for understanding how the mind works.

Second, the computational metaphor envisions the mind as a computing device and analogizes the processes of the mind to the operations (software) of a computer (Deary, 2000; Hunt, 1980; Lohman, 2000).

Third, the biological metaphor (which includes evolutionary notions) seeks to understand intelligence in terms of the workings of the brain (Jerison, 2000; Vernon, Wickett, Bazana, & Stelmack, 2000). Biological theorists often attempt to map cognitive activity onto various portions of the brain, or to show that certain kinds of responses emitted by the brain (evoked potentials) relate to psychometrically measured intellectual performance.

Fourth, the epistemological metaphor, due primarily to Jean Piaget (Piaget, 1972), seeks to understand intelligence as an equilibration between assimilation and accommodation.

Fifth, the anthropological metaphor views intelligence as a cultural invention (Greenfield, 1997). On this view, the mental processes underlying intelligence may or may not change as a function of culture, but the behaviors considered to be intelligent certainly do. What is considered intelligent behavior in one culture may be considered to be unintelligent in another (Serpell, 2000).

Sixth, the sociological metaphor considers how socialization affects intellectual development (Feuerstein, 1980; Vygotsky, 1978).One might examine, for example, how children internalize experiences they first encounter in an interpersonal context (Chen & Siegler, 2000).

Seventh, the systems metaphor tries to understand the various aspects of intelligence and how they work together as a system (Gardner, 1999; Sternberg, 1999).

There are many classical and modern theories of intelligence these theories as: Theory of mental abilities measurement for Galton, theory of general mental abilities for Spearman, Piaget's cognitive stage theory, Glaser's cognitive efficiency theory, Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence, Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, Horn's mixture abilities theory…etc, moreover many contemporary theorists, notably Ann Brown, Joseph Campione, Earl Butterfield, Richard Snow and Roger Schank, take learning as crucial to intelligence (Rex, 1996). However, their treatment of learning in relation to intelligence has been less comprehensive than a theory would require. Moreover, they focus exclusively on learning to the extent that they neglect the thinking dimension of intelligence. For example, Butterfield sees learning exclusively from the cognitive perspective. He defines intelligent action as the creation of a novel executive routine after searching through knowledge base, met-cognition, and cognitive strategies (Butterfield, 1986). He provides a cognitive framework of learning, but not a comprehensive theory of intelligence based on learning. Brown and Campione equate intelligence with learning potential and try to measure it through dynamic assessment of domain-specific indices of learning potential (Brown & Campione, 1985; Campione, 1989).

They are more concerned with school learning of academic subjects, that is, learning in a formal sense, than learning in a more informal and general sense. While they should be credited for bringing learning back to the center of focus on intelligence, they have yet to spell out the concept and ramifications of "learning potential" and its relation to intelligence.

Snow (1986) defines intelligence as a "family resemblance" concept with six aspects. He is concerned with the cognitive aptitude for learning and proposes typography of ability and learning, but he offers no comprehensive theory of intelligence based on learning. Schank is able to propose a theory of intelligence by piecing together a few very basic concepts such as understanding, explanation, and learning (Schank, 2005), yet he is more concerned with cognitive understanding than learning and defines the latter in terms of the former, furthermore, intelligence itself does not consist of an isolated and sharply differentiated class of cognitive processes . Intelligence is thus only a generic term to indicate the superior forms of organization or equilibrium of cognitive structuring (Piaget, 1972).

1.4.4 The Approaches of Intelligence

Phares (1991) maintained that there are different approaches on the nature of intelligence, the way to assess it, and trends of research in intelligence these views are presented in this following:

<sup>1.4..4.1 The Psychometric Approach

Sternberg (1994) investigated the psychometric approach which was developed as a result of the work of two major theories. The first was the theory of Galton, the British scientist. The second was the theory developed by Binet. In 1893, Galton contended that the foundation of intelligence is labor and sensitivity to physical stimuli. In 1904, Binet and his colleague Simon developed a set of tests that included items on vocabulary, arithmetical inference, visual and spatial visualization, verbal absurdities, analogies, and differences between concepts. All these were the base of the reputed Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. The first to develop a major theory within the psychometric context was the British psychologist Spearman in his first article on intelligence in 1904. Through the factor analysis he devised, Spearman (1927)found two types of factors: the general factor, which penetrates performance on all the tasks that require intelligence regardless of their form and content, and the specific factors, which are the unique elements of any minor test of intelligence.



On the other hand, Bana and Al-Shafi (2001) emphasized that in 1938 Thurstone’s analyses resulted in what he called group factors, the factors that are not big enough to mount to the degree of the general factor and not small enough to be considered specific factors. He identified seven group factors: verbal understanding, verbal fluency, figures, spatial visualization, inference, memory and perceptive speed.

1.4.4.2 The Developmental Approach

Matlin (1995) asserted that the developmental approach came as a substitute for the psychometric approach. It focuses on the developmental changes in the children’s way of realizing and understanding their environment. Unlike the psychometric approach that relied on statistical processes, especially factor analysis, the developmental approach, originated by Piaget, looks at intelligence through internal organizational structures. These structures as well as intelligence manifestations that are reflected on behavior differ according to age.
1.4.4.3 The Cognitive Approach

Bana and Al-Shafi (2001) mentioned that the cognitive approach view intelligence as a hypothetical construct in the sense that it consists of a set of mental representations of information and a set of processes that can work with these mental representations. The intelligent person, according to the cognitive approach, is the person who represents information more effectively or clearly or processes information with speed and efficiency.
1.4.4.4 The Contextual Approach

Sternberg (1999) found that this approach criticizes the cognitive approach for its complete negligence of the context in which intelligence works. According to this approach, a person can be intelligent in a given environment rather than another. Two persons with the same cognitive processing abilities may operate differently in two different contexts based on the requirements of the environment around them.
1.4.4.5 The Biological Approach

The biological approach tackles intelligence in the light of its biological bases through two dimensions. The first is the study of the brain, the functions of the two hemispheres, the brain electrical activity and the blood flow to the brain. The second is the study of genes. As to the work of the brain as a whole, Luria (1980) proposed a theory assuming that the brain is a distinctive system that is composed of parts responsible for different aspects of the whole. In other words, the various parts of the cortex (which are relatively separate from each other) work to produce the different types of thinking and behavior. Luria theory assumed that the brain has three main units. The first is the unit of stimulation. It includes the brain stem and the midbrain. The second unit of the brain is the unit of the sensory input. This encompasses the temporal, the wall and the back lobes. The third unit includes the frontal cortex that is involved in the organization and planning operations. So this theory didn’t mention the intelligence as mental employment, but emphasized on direct biological processes. Sternberg (1994) confirms that it is evident that this theory does not tackle intelligence as a product of mental functioning, but in the light of its direct biological bases. Ibrahim (1987) asserted that the concern with the functioning of the brain as a whole has led to the research on the specific functions of the two hemispheres. Research proved the left hemisphere to be the dominant in most people. It controls motion (for instance, the right hand that is controlled by the left hemisphere is more used than the left hand). It also controls speech centers, and critical and analytic thinking aspects. The right hemisphere on most people is silent most of the time. Yet, it is responsible for the activities and the abilities that have the artistic and creative nature. It also controls intuition and the affairs that require affection and sensation.
There is a third view represented in the study of intelligence through measuring the electrical activity of the various parts of the brain. Wise (1992) for instance, measured the speed of the neural transmission and found, for example, that the speed of transmission in the arm is associated with high levels of intelligence.
There is a relatively new transition in the brain research. This is the measurement of the blood flow to the brain as a direct index of the functional activity of the brain. For instance, it was proved that the blood flow in the parts that are responsible for spontaneous concentration and decoding of new information decrease in old people.</sup>
2. Developing Thinking Styles as an Approach to Modify and Change Prejudice

There is several of thinking styles can plays different roles of prejudice. Regarding to the present study, creative and emotional thinking in addition intelligence as kinds of thinking styles can plays a significant roles in inducing intellectual and cultural progress. Its skills, if acquired, make individuals overcome any obstacle, opinions, thinking methods and beliefs. This, in turn, contributes to the achievement of progress since the acknowledgement of the opinions of others, whoever they are, makes individuals lazy and prone to absolute beliefs, which is against criticism and reasoning (Ryan, 2005).

Thinking styles in this study regarding is one of the most important educational aims that educational institutes seek to achieve. Educational specialists consider training students, especially beginners on the skills of thinking styles one of the aims that have priority (Terman, 2001). What humans need in today’s complicated world is the ability to distinguish between the right and the false, the valuable and the valueless (Deary, 2000). Hence, it has become important that everyone acquire the skills that enable them to examine and analyze the information they get, so they can make right decisions (AlKafafi,1983), Brookfield (1987) believes that learning intelligence and creative thinking is one of the most important activities in adult’s lives. When we become, creative, and intelligent thinkers, we develop awareness of the axioms according to which we work. We learn to care about the context where we act and think, and thus we hesitate to accept ready made fast solutions and single responses. We become open to the alternative ways of looking at the world (Vaill, 1996).

The development several of thinking styles leads to the development of mental flexibility and objectivity. Developed creative, emotional thinking, and intelligence enhances the practice of examining axioms and scrutiny before making decisions. It eliminates the partitive view and bias for stereotypes. It also develops self-awareness and makes individuals more tolerant. When we practice our intelligence and creative abilities, we make our judgments, choices and decisions by ourselves instead of allowing others to do this for us (Gardner, 2000). This way we become active participants in shaping our personal and social worlds (Brookfield, 1986). Interest in the development of thinking styles has increased lately. The recent interest in thinking styles is evident in dedicating specialized scientific journals for its study and development, renowned organizations such as Curriculum Development began to take interest in thinking styles (John & Lori, 2005). Any reading in the history of recent education asserts such interest in emotional, creative thinking and intelligence etc, and its development (Sternberg, 1985).

Prejudicial attitudes and behaviors impede intelligence, creativity, emotional thinking, and other thinking styles and one’s ability to examine its axioms and postulates. It makes the individual comply with his group without any consideration of why he behaves like this and the benefits he gains. The individual in this case lets others think for him. For this prejudicial attitude to be eliminated, one’s abilities to analyze issues critically should be enhanced. Adherence to customs and norms should be based on solid grounds and objective scientific facts. Making judgments should be based on rationality, not emotionality. The development of thinking styles effectively weakens dogmatic and biased thinking (Walsh, 1988).

Prejudice is an acquired attitude determined based on social norms and values taught from parents, teacher, mass media (Farooq, 40), his ethical group (Hamed, 1984), or emulating political leaders and models (Russell, 1985). It therefore develops without any criticism or justification. One conforms to and identifies with his group in return for certain gains. Stereotypes play a role in the development and establishment of prejudicial attitude. What characterizes stereotypes is that they are common, generalizable and void of logic. They are not based on direct experiences. This shows that some thinking styles as creative thinking and intelligence are an obvious opposite of prejudicial attitude. Such characteristics of prejudicial attitude impede intelligence, creative thinking (Rober, 2000). Hence, any attempt to develop any thinking styles should seek to eliminate such obstacle (Ibrahim, 1966).

Research whether descriptive, which investigated the relationship between intelligence, creative thinking and prejudice or experimental, which sought to develop intelligence and creative thinking as an approach to eliminate or modify prejudicial attitude asserted the relationship between intelligence, creative thinking and prejudicial attitude (Farouk, 1994). Findings revealed that prejudice can be eliminated by thinking styles as a strategy that modifies the cognitive component of prejudice, as it eliminates many of the negative factors and destructive thinking habits such as compliance with emotions and extremism in opinions.

3. Review of Related Literature

The present researcher seeks to present here related literature (studies) which are of significant value in providing an understanding of prejudice, and its correlation with the variables of present study. These related studies as the following:

3.1 William and Thomas (1984) examined the relationship of the racial prejudice of school-age children to the actual race of the child, interracial contact, grade, sex, and linguistic intelligence, locus of control, anxiety, and self-concept. A scale was devised to measure five facets of racial prejudice: a total index of racial prejudice, dating and marriage, school, social relationships, and racial interactions in restaurants. The subjects were 93 black children and 307 white children in grades 6 through 10. The results indicated that white students appear to be more prejudiced than blacks in circumstances involving minimal intimate social relationships for short periods of time. No differences in prejudice were found among grade levels, however, females were generally less prejudiced than males. Black males of low prejudice were more linguistic intelligent, more external, and less anxious than black males of higher prejudice. It is suggested that integration in schools be gradual, and that personality factors, not external circumstances, may make major contribution to the development of prejudice.
3.2 Teagle (1986) examined the effectiveness of linguistic intelligence program to reduce prejudice among elementary school students, the subject were (N =100). The results showed that there was negative statistically significant correlation between linguistic intelligence and reducing prejudice.
3.3 Byrnes and Kiger (1988) they used the effectiveness of a well-known prejudice-reduction simulation activity, "Blue Eyes-Brown Eyes" that was assessed as a tool for changing the attitudes of non-black teacher education students toward blacks. The subjects were 164 students enrolled in eight sections of an introductory elementary education course at a state university. Three sections were selected to be administered the simulation, five sections served as a control group. All students were administered two racial attitude measures as pre- and post-tests. After participating in the simulation, students described their feelings abut the experience both in writing and in an hour-long debriefing session. Outcomes include the following: (1) all subjects reported that the experience was meaningful (2) statistical analysis of pre-and post-test results showed moderate prejudice reduction (3) all participants reported stress from the simulation. An attempt to measure long-term behavior change, using a mill solicitation one year later, was inconclusive. Ethical considerations are explored connected with subjecting simulation participants to short-run emotional discomfort in order to achieve greater compassion for others.
3.4 Klain (1992) examined attitude changes among 30 college – bound high school seniors in California regarding prejudice and racism. Students were pre-tested using a 60-item Likert-style questionnaire, received instruction about tolerance of differences and were post-tested immediately following the 3-week unit of instruction, which included many creative activities as reading, Viewing multicultural material, performing exercises in critical thinking, esteem, personal reflection, and emotional intelligence. The findings of the study showed increased awareness and tolerance in the attitudes of the students, which mean negative correlation between creative activities and prejudice.

3.5 Soderquist (2002) he used Jane Austen's novel 'Pride and Prejudice', in his study, this lesson, plan presents creative activities designed to help students (N= 250) to understand the side effects of prejudice, in addition that classics are those pieces of literature that continue to be popular long after they were written classics tend to have universal themes, and Austen's writing has been updated and dramatized and most likely, will continue to be. The main activity of the lesson involves students working in small groups to draft the script of a modern day version of scenes from the novel. It includes objectives, materials, procedures, discussion questions, evaluation methods, extension activities, annotations of suggested readings and web links, vocabulary, and related academic standards and benchmarks addressed in the lesson plan. The lesson plan contains a description of a video clip related to the lesson, comprehension questions related to the video clip, and answers to those comprehension questions. In the end of these activities the results showed that creative activities and lessons affected of the target subjects to increase awareness and reduce prejudice among target subjects.
3.6 Bernier (2004) applied two strategies (included creative activities) that tried to address the need for a multicultural education program to increase cultural awareness and reduce prejudice among a target population of 1500 students in a middle school. One strategy included human relation training of (N=500) students, who formed a Cultural Awareness Group within the target population. The second strategy was the creation and introduction of a multicultural curriculum in the Interdisciplinary Middle School program for Advisement, Counseling, and Teaming (IMPACT) classes(N = 1000). All program objectives were met, with the target group^'s cultural awareness increased and their prejudice. In the end of strategies, the researcher found that there was negative correlation between creative activities and reducing prejudice.
3.7 Mckown (2004) used a content analysis of interviews after finishing some creative activities with an ethnically group of 202 children aged 6 to 10 describes what children think racism is, and examines association between ages, ethnicity thinking about racism. Children's narratives capture many dimensions of racism. Including stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, and ethnic conflict. With age, Children's ideas about racism become more elaborated and differentiated. At every age, compared to their peers, African American Children have more elaborated and differentiated ideas about racism and mention those dimensions of racism that overtly reflect power relations more frequently. Qualitative analyses suggest that Children's ideas about racism are abstract, increasingly coherent with age, and sometimes incorporate causal language. Findings are discussed in terms of origins of individual, the extent to which Children's ideas about racism might be considered a lay theory and the likely consequences of such a theory in daily life.
3.8 Mosten (2004) studied the relationship between emotional intelligence and prejudice among secondary high school students. The subjects (N = 200 female) and (N= 200 male).The result showed that there was no statistically significant correlation between emotional intelligence and prejudice among the female and male.
3.9 Clark (2005) examined Several school based racial prejudice reduction interventions have demonstrated some benefit ecological serves as a framework within which to understand the limits and to enhance the efficacy of prejudice reduction interventions. The target subject (N=400) of high school students , by using the activity of ecological theory, in this study the research examined three prejudice reduction approaches, including social cognitive training, cooperative learning, and liberation psychology, he discussed each approach in terms of its conceptualization of the ecological structures and processes that cause prejudice, in addition he discussed each approach in terms of what ecological structures and processes it enlists to reduce prejudice. These examples illustrate that the theory of etiology on which an intervention is based strongly, shapes and severely limits the limitation and to enhance prejudice reduction efforts in the schools.