To the select committee on marine parks in south australia

2.8 Conclusion

Human activities are undermining the biological fabric of planet Earth. Critical problems identified decades ago by the international community have not been addressed in any effective way, and are worsening. “Business as usual” – resting on existing anthropocentric cultures within science, government and the community at large – is not working.
As Callicott (1991:27) argued more than ten years ago: “The public conservation agencies [read: fishery management agencies] are still ruled by the 19^th century Resource Conservation Ethic, but as Aldo Leopold realized some 40 years ago, the Resource Conservation Ethic is based upon an obsolete pre-ecological scientific paradigm. Since the Land Ethic is distilled from contemporary evolutionary and ecological theory it should, therefore, be the new guiding principle of present and future conservation policy.”
The single most important issue the world faces today is the need to develop an ecocentric ethic of planetary stewardship, based on notions of participation in the community of nature rather than domination of it – as advocated by Leopold (1948). Such ethics need to be underpinned by a reverence for the beauty and complexity of our "water planet" and its diversity of life forms. Without this ethic, the forces behind our industrial-consumer society are pushing global resource consumption to higher and higher levels, eroding the essential life support systems of the planet. The expansion of ‘human habitats’ is now so pervasive that it is quite simply destroying the homes of other inhabitants of our planet on a massive scale.
Much is at stake. The human onslaught on the marine environment has, until the last few decades, been concentrated in estuaries and coastal oceans – through overfishing, habitat damage, pollution and the introduction of invasive species. This has, however, changed dramatically in recent times. While coastal marine areas continue to suffer, massive damage is now being inflicted over oceanic environments, primarily by industrial over-fishing (Gianni 2004).
As Ludwig et al. (1993:17) argued: “There are currently many plans for sustainable use or sustainable development that are founded upon scientific information and consensus. Such ideas reflect ignorance of the history of resource exploitation and misunderstanding of the possibility of achieving scientific consensus concerning resources and the environment. Although there is considerable variation in detail, there is remarkable consistency in the history of resource exploitation: resources are inevitably over-exploited, often to the point of collapse or extinction.” In the decade since Ludwig wrote, evidence is still accumulating that over-exploitation of marine resources remains the rule rather than the exception (Koslow 2007; Kieves 2005; Verity et al. 2002; Wilson 2002).
A voluminous and long-standing literature on environmental ethics exists, but is seldom referred to by marine scientists. While little of this discussion has permeated international and national policies, a few notable documents, such as the UN World Charter for Nature 1982, the Earth Charter, and Australia’s national biodiversity strategy (Commonwealth of Australia 1996) do contain statements reinforcing the idea of respect and reverence for nature. But where is this concept being expressed? What part should it play in strategies and programs to protect natural ecosystems which continue to be exploited and degraded by the incremental expansion of human activities?
Over the thousands of years of human civilization, it is only recently that a ‘right to life’ has become a universally accepted part of the way humans treat each other – along with rights to property and ownership of land. At present we humans accord the rest of the living world scant rights. Fish, for example, are not even accorded the right to a humane death, nor have we provided a right to an undisturbed home: no-take reserves (as of 2004) amount to only a miniscule proportion of the marine realm. Humans, like other predators, have always eaten plants and animals; however humans are now destroying both species and ecosystems.
A few nations are, at present, moving along a path which would accord a ‘right to life’ to whales and other cetaceans (Commonwealth of Australia 2002, 2004). However this extension of rights is hotly debated by other nations, and international agreement (even in the long-term) seems unlikely (Danaher 2002, Molenaar 2003).
Given the pressing need to put ethics into action to protect the planet’s ecosystems, a search for a right to life for particular species – resting as it does on highly controversial arguments – is a path which we have no time to explore. However, I believe scientists and the community generally need to extend the concepts of respect for and community with nature (concepts which have at least some wide general acceptance) to rights of peaceful coexistence. This concept, in practice, means setting aside large parts of the planet where human impacts are kept to a minimum, and consumptive harvesting does not occur.
There is scope to do this in the marine realm – if we are willing to pay for it. At present only 1.5% of the oceans have protective management regimes (meeting the IUCN protected area criteria I-VI), and only 0.18% of the ocean is protected to the criteria I level (no-take zones). The World Parks Congress 2003 (WPC) recommended the establishment of national networks of marine no-take areas (NTAs) covering 20-30% of habitats by 2012. Many scientists support such a target purely on ecosystem management grounds (www.onlyoneplanet.com.au). As Pimm et al. (2001) have said: “Enforceable protection of remaining natural ecosystems is an overarching recommendation”.
Providing refuges for at least a substantial part of marine biota is an idea that finds support amongst many conservation biologists. Browman & Stergiou (2004:270) ask “…why is it so difficult to recognize the inherent rights that marine fauna have to a safe haven?”. The fact of the matter is that the establishment of marine protected areas will place short-term costs on those who have traditional (or formal) rights to harvest from the sea. These rights must be recognised and compensation must be paid.
Victoria (Australia) established no-take areas over 5.3% of its coastal seas (to 3 nm) in 2002. The program of establishing these protected areas nearly failed due to intense political pressure applied by fishers incensed by the government’s lack of compensation provisions. The State government was at first unwilling to formalise a compensation program for fear of excessive costs – which no-one had bothered to estimate in any detail. Three years later, the lesson from the Victorian program is that compensation costs need not be high: claims have in fact amounted to only half a million dollars (Phillips 2005), much less than many had predicted, and trifling in the circumstances^xii.
There is a desperate need to protect marine environments. While utilitarian arguments must continue to be used, I believe it is now essential that scientists and policy-makers enter into ethical debate. Our species is gradually but inexorably killing the other wild living inhabitants of our planet, and destroying the places in which they live. The time to adopt a new ethical position has already passed with some talk but no action. The matter is now so urgent that it demands the attention of every marine scientist. In Callicott’s words: “we … must rise to the challenge of our time” – requiring an explicit change of the underlying ethics of our use of marine ecosystems (Callicott 1991:27).
My conclusion is that biological scientists are amongst the few residents of the Earth who can appreciate the gravity of the changes which are taking place. We need to speak for the planet, and we need to use ethical as well as scientific arguments to do so. The ‘right to peaceful coexistence’ is a concept in need of urgent and widespread discussion. We need to discuss “the arrogance of humanism” and the ethics of resource use on a planet whose ecosystems are in crisis. Marine protected areas need to be developed for many reasons, one of which is to provide peaceful and secure homes to other living residents of this planet, in addition to their role in safeguarding the integrity of ecosystem processes we barely understand.

Section Three:

A sample of peer-reviewed scientific papers relevant to the design and management of MPAs.


Abesamis, RA & Russ, GR (2005) 'Density-dependent spillover from a marine reserve: long-term evidence', Ecological Applications 15(5): 1798-812.

Adam, D (2002) 'Fire from ice', Nature 415(29 August): 913-4.

Adrianov, AV (2004) 'Current problems with marine biodiversity studies', Russian Journal of Marine Biology 30(Supplement 1): S1-S6.

Agardy, T (2000) 'Effects of fisheries on marine ecosystems: a conservationist's perspective.' ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 57: 761-5.

Agardy, T, Bridgewater, P, Crosby, MP, Day, J, Dayton, PK, Kenchington, R, Laffoley, D, McConney, P, Murray, PA, Parks, JE & Peau, L (2003) 'Dangerous targets? Unresolved issues and ideological clashes around marine protected areas.' Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13(4): 353-67.

Agrawal, A (2002) 'Common property institutions and sustainable governance of resources', World Development 29(10): 1649-72.

AHTEG Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Marine and Coastal Protected Areas (2004) Technical advice on the establishment and management of a national system of marine and coastal protected areas, Secretariat (Executive Secretary) to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal Canada.

Aiken, JJ, Godley, BJ, Broderick, AC, Austin, T, Ebanks-Petrie, G & Hays, GC (2001) 'Two hundred years after a commercial marine turtle fishery: the current status of marine turtles nesting in the Cayman Islands', Oryx 35(2): 145-51.

Alpine, J (2007) 'Spatial management of the open ocean', Marine and Freshwater Research.

Alpine, J & Hobday, AJ (2007) 'Area requirements and pelagic protected areas: is size an impediment to implementation? ' Marine and Freshwater Research 58: 558-69.

Andelman, S & Willig, MR (2003) 'Present patterns and future prospects for biodiversity in the western hemisphere', Ecology Letters 6: 818-24.

Anderson, PK (2001) 'Marine mammals in the next one hundred years: twilight for a Pleistocene megafauna?' Journal of Mammalogy 82(3): 623-9.

ANZECC Task Force on Marine Protected Areas (1999) Understanding and applying the principles of comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness for the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas; version 3.1 - report prepared by the Action Team for the ANZECC TFMPA, Marine Group, Environment Australia, Canberra.

Apitz, SE, Elliott, M, Fountain, M & Galloway, TS (2006) 'European Environmental Management: Moving to an Ecosystem Approach', Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 2(1): 80-5.

Arlinghaus, R, Cooke, SJ, Schwab, A & Cowx, IG (2007) 'Fish welfare: a challenge to the feelings-based approach, with implications for recreational fishing', Fish and Fisheries 8(1): 57-71.

Arlinghaus, R, Schwab, A, Cooke, SJ & Cowx, IG (2009) 'Contrasting pragmatic and suffering-centred approaches to fish welfare in recreational angling', Journal of Fish Biology 75: 2448-63.

Arnason, R (2000) 'Marine reserves: is there an economic justification?' paper presented to the Conference on the Economics of Marine Protected Areas, Vancouver, July 6-7, 2000.

Ascher, W (2006) 'Long-term strategy for sustainable development: strategies to promote far-sighted action', Sustainability Science 1(15-22).

Aswani, S & Lauer, M (2006) 'Benthic mapping using local aerial photo interpretation and resident taxa inventories for designing marine protected areas', Environmental Conservation 33(03): 263-73.

Aswani, S, Albert, S, Sabetian, A & Furusawa, T (2007) 'Customary management as precautionary and adaptive principles for protecting coral reefs in Oceania', Coral Reefs 26(4): 1009-21.

Auster, PJ & Langton, RW (1998) The effects of fishing on fish habitat, University of Connecticut, Groton Connecticut USA.

Auster, PJ (1998) 'A Conceptual Model of the Impacts of Fishing Gear on the Integrity of Fish Habitats', Conservation Biology 12(6): 1198-203.

Ayling, AM & Choat, HJ (2008) Abundance patterns of reef sharks and predatory fishes on differently zoned reefs in the offshore Townsville region: final report to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville.

Babcock, RC, Kelly, S, Shears, NT, Walker, JW & Willis, TJ (1999) 'Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves', Marine Ecological Progress Series 189: 125-34.

Babcock, RC, Kelly, S, Shears, NT, Walker, JW & Willis, TJ (1999) 'Large-scale habitat change in temperate marine reserves', Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 125-34.

Babcock, RC (2003) 'The New Zealand marine reserve experience: the science behind the politics', in PA Hutchings & D Lunney (eds), Conserving marine environments: out of sight, out of mind?, Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mossman New South Wales.

Babcock, RC, Shears, NT, Alcala, A, Barrett, N, Edgar, GJ, Lafferty, KD, McClanahan, TR & Russ, GR (2010) 'Decadal trends in marine reserves reveal differential rates of change in direct and indirect effects', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences online 30 March 2010: 1-6.

Badalamenti, F, Ramos, AA, Voultsiadou, EA, Nchez Lizaso, JL, D'Anna, G, Pipitone, C, Mas, J, Fernandes, JAR, Whitmarsh, D & Riggio, S (2002) 'Cultural and socio-economic impacts of Mediterranean marine protected areas', Environmental Conservation 27: 110-25.

Baelde, P (2005) 'Interactions between the implementation of marine protected areas and right-based fisheries management in Australia', Fisheries Management and Ecology 12(1): 9-18.

Baird, AH, Campbell, SJ, Anggoro, AW, Ardiwijaya, RL, Fadli, N, Herdiana, Y, Kartawijaya, T, Mahyiddin, D, Mukminin, A, Pardede, S, Pratchett, M, Rudi, E & Siregar, A (2005) 'Acehnese reefs in the wake of the Asian tsunami', Current Biology 15(21): 1926-30.

Baker, JL, Shepherd, SA & Edyvane, KS (1996) 'The use of marine reserves to manage benthic fisheries, with emphasis on the South Australian abalone fishery', in R Thackway (ed.), Developing Australia’s Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Criteria and guidelines for identification and selection. Workshop at South Australian Aquatic Sciences Centre Adelaide, 22-23 April 1996, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, pp. 103-13.

Baker, JL (2000) Guide to marine protected areas, Department for Environment and Heritage South Australia, Adelaide.

Bakun, A & Weeks, SJ (2006) 'Adverse feedback sequences in exploited marine systems: are deliberate interruptive actions warranted?' Fish and Fisheries 7(4): 316-33.

Baldwin, C (1990) Impact of elevated nutrients in the Great Barrier Reef, GBRMPA, Townsville.

Balint, PJ & Mashinya, J (2008) 'CAMPFIRE during Zimbabwe's national crisis: local impacts and broader implications for community-based wildlife management', Society and Natural Resources 21: 783-96.

Ball, I & Possingham, HP (2000) MarXan marine reserve design using spatially explicit annealing: a manual, University of Queensland, Brisbane Australia.

Ballantine, W (1989) 'Marine reserves: lessons from New Zealand', Progress in Underwater Science 13(1-14).

Ballantine, W & Langlois, T (2008) 'Marine reserves: the need for systems', Hydrobiologia 606(1): 35-44.

Ban, NC, Adams, V & Pressey, RL (2010) 'Promise and problems for estimating management costs of marine protected areas: a case study in the Coral Sea', Conservation Letters 12: 34.

Barrett, JH, Locker, AM & Roberts, CM (2004) 'The origins of intensive marine fishing in medieval Europe: the English evidence', Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 271(1556): 2417-21.

Bascompte, J, Melian, CJ & Sala, E (2005) 'Interaction strength combinations and the overfishing of a marine food web', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102: 5443-7.

Baskett, ML, Yoklavich, MM & Love, MS (2006) 'Predation, competition, and the recovery of overexploited fish stocks in marine reserves', Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63: 1214-29.

Bastyan, GR & Cambridge, ML (2008) 'Transplantation as a method for restoring the seagrass Posidonia australis', Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79: 289-99.

Bax, N & Williams, A (2002) 'Designing representative and adequate MPAs in a structured environment', paper presented to the ASFB Conference on Aquatic Protected Areas, August 2002, Cairns Australia.

Beck, MW, Heck, KL, Able, KW, Childers, DL, Eggleston, DB, Gillanders, BM, Halpern, B, Hays, CG, Hoshino, K, Minello, TJ, Orth, RJ, Sheridan, PF & Weinstein, MP (2001) 'The Identification, Conservation, and Management of Estuarine and Marine Nurseries for Fish and Invertebrates', BioScience 51(8): 633-41.

Beger, M, Jones, GP & Munday, PL (2003) 'Conservation of coral reef biodiversity: a comparison of reserve selection procedures for corals and fishes', Biological Conservation 111: 53-62.

Bene, C & Tewfik, A (2003) 'Biological evaluation of marine protected areas: evidence of crowding effect on a protected population of Queen Conch in the Caribbean', Marine Ecology 24(1): 45-58.

Benton, MJ & Twitchett, RJ (2003) 'How to kill (almost) all life: the end-Permian extinction event', Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18(7): 358-66.

Bianchi, G, Gislason, H, Graham, K, Hill, L, Jin, X, Koranteng, K, Manickchand-Heileman, S, Paya, I, Sainsbury, K, Sanchez, F & Zwanenburg, K (2000) 'Impact of fishing on size, composition and diversity of demersal fish communities', ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57(3): 558-71.

Bjørndal, T, Kaitala, V, Lindroos, M & Munro, GR (2000) 'The management of high seas fisheries', Annals of Operations Research 94(1): 183-96.

Blaber, SJM, Cyrus, DP, Albaret, J-J, Day, J, Elliot, M, Fonseca, MS, Hoss, DE, Orensanz, JML, Potter, IC & Silvert, W (2000) 'Effects of fishing on the structure and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems', ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 57: 590-602.

Blanchard, F, LeLoc'h, F, Hily, C & Boucher, J (2004) 'Fishing effects on diversity, size and community structure of the benthic invertebrate and fish megafauna on the Bay of Biscay coast of France', Marine Ecology-Progress Series 280: 249-60.

Bleakley, C (2004) A review of critical marine habitats and species in the Pacific Islands region, SPREP, Apia Samoa.

Blyth-Skyrme, RE, Kaiser, MJ, Hiddink, JG, Edwards-Jones, G & Hart, PJB (2006) 'Conservation Benefits of Temperate Marine Protected Areas: Variation among Fish Species', Conservation Biology 20(3): 811-20.

Bohnsack, JA (1998) 'Application of marine reserves to reef fisheries management', Australian Journal of Science 23: 298-394.

Bohnsack, JA (1999) 'Incorporating no-take marine reserves into precautionary management and stock assessment.' in VR Restrepo (ed.), Providing scientific advice to implement the precautionary approach under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-FF/SPO-40., National Oceans and Atmospheric Administration, Washington.

Bohnsack, JA (2003) 'Shifting baselines, marine reserves and Leopold's biotic ethic', Gulf and Caribbean Research 14(2): 1-7.

Bohnsack, JA, Ault, JS & Causey, BD (2004) 'Why have no-take marine protected areas?' American Fisheries Society Symposium 42: 185-93.

Botsford, LW, Hastings, A & Gaines, SD (2001) 'Dependence of sustainability on the configuration of marine reserves and larval dispersal distance', Ecology Letters 4: 144-50.

Botsford, LW, Micheli, F & Hastings, A (2003) 'Principles for the design of marine reserves.' Ecological Applications 13(1): S25-S31 (Supplement).

Botsford, LW, Brumbaugh, DR, Grimes, CB, Kellner, JB, Largier, JL, O'Farrell, MR, Ralston, S, Soulanille, E & Wespestad, V (2008) 'Connectivity, sustainability, and yield: bridging the gap between conventional fisheries management and marine protected areas', Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries .

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Bowen, BW, Bass, AL, Chow, S-M, Bostrom, M, Bjorndal, KA, Bolten, AB, Okuyama, T, Bolker, BM, Epperly, S, Lacasella, E, Shaver, D, Dodd, M, Hopkins- Murphy, SR, Musick, JA, Swingle, M, Rankin-Baransky, K, Teas, W, Witzell, WN & Dutton, PH (2004) 'Natal homing in juvenile loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta)', Molecular Ecology 13(12): 3797-808.

Bowen, BW, Bass, AL, Soares, L & Toonen, RJ (2005) 'Conservation implications of complex population structure: lessons from the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta)', Molecular Ecology 14(8): 2389-402.

Bowen, BW, Grant, WS, Hillis-Starr, Z, Shaver, DJ, Bjorndal, KA, Bolten, AB & Bass, AL (2007) 'The advocate and the scientist: debating the commercial exploitation of endangered hawksbill turtles', Molecular Ecology 16(17): 3514-5.

Branch, TA, Stafford, KM, Palacios, DM & Allison, C (2007) 'Past and present distribution, densities and movements of blue whales Balaenoptera musculus in the Southern Hemisphere and northern Indian Ocean', Mammal Reviews 37(2): 116-75.

Breen, DA, Avery, R & Otway, NM (2004) Broad-scale biodiversity assessment of the Manning Shelf Marine Bioregion, Marine Parks Authority New South Wales, Sydney.

Brewer, D, Heales, D, Milton, D, Dell, Q, Fry, G, Venables, B & Jones, P (2006) 'The impact of turtle excluder devices and bycatch reduction devices on diverse tropical marine communities in Australia's northern prawn trawl fishery', Fisheries Research 81(2-3): 176-88.

Bridgewater, PB & Cresswell, ID (1999) 'Biogeography of mangrove and saltmarsh vegetation: implications for conservation and management in Australia', Mangroves and Salt Marshes 3(2): 117-25.

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Brodziak, J & Link, J (2002) 'Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management: What is it and how can we do it?' Bulletin of Marine Science 70: 589-611.

Browman, HI & Stergiou, KI (2004) 'Marine protected areas as a central element of ecosystem-based management: defining their circulation, size and location', Marine Ecological Progress Series 274: 271-2.

Browman, HI & Stergiou, KI (2005) 'Introduction to theme section: Politics and socio-economics of ecosystem-based management of marine resources', Marine Ecology Progress Series 300: 241-96.

Brown, I (2002) 'Oldest marine protected area in the world: Royal National Park, New South Wales Australia, designated 1879.' MPA News 3(6): 5.

BRS Bureau of Rural Sciences Australia (2003) Implementing the Representative Areas Program in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park - assessment of potential social impacts on commercial fishing and associated communiites, BRS, Canberra.

Bruton, MN (1995) 'Have fishes had their chips? The dilemma of threatened fishes', Environmental Biology of Fishes 43(1): 1-27.

Burridge, CY, Pitcher, CR, Wassenberg, TJ, Poiner, IR & Hill, BJ (2003) 'Measurement of the rate of depletion of benthic fauna by prawn (shrimp) otter trawls: an experiment in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia', Fisheries Research 60(2-3): 237-53.

Bush, SR & Hirsch, P (2005) 'Framing fishery decline', Aquatic Resources, Culture and Development 1(2): 79-90.

Buxton, C, Haddon, M & Bradshaw, M (2006) Regional impact assessment for the marine protected areas proposed for the south-east region, Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute, Hobart.

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Caddy, JF (1999) 'Fisheries management in the twenty-first century: will new paradigms apply?' Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 9(1): 1-43.

Caddy, JF (2000) 'Marine catchment basin effects versus impacts of fisheries on semi-enclosed seas', ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 57: 628-40.

Caddy, JF & Agnew, DJ (2003) Recovery plans for depleted fish stocks: an overview of global experience, ICES, Copenhagen Denmark.

Caddy, JF & Seijo, JC (2005) 'This is more difficult than we thought! The responsibility of scientists, managers and stakeholders to mitigate the unsustainability of marine fisheries', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 360(1453): 59-75.

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Campbell, ML, Grage, A, Mabin, CJT & Hewitt, CL (2009) 'Conflict between International Treaties: Failing to mitigate the effects of introduced marine species', Academy of the Social Sciences Dialogue 28(1): 46-59.

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Caro, TM & O'Doherty, G (1999) 'On the use of surrogate species in conservation biology', Conservation Biology 13(4): 805-14.

Carpenter, S, Caraco, NF, Correll, DL, Howarth, RW, Sharpley, AN & Smith, VH (1998) 'Nonpoint Pollution of Surface waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen', Ecological Applications 8(3): 559-68.

Carr, MH & Raimondi, PT (1999) 'Marine protected areas as a precautionary approach to management', CalCOFi Reports 40.

Carr, MH (2000) 'Marine protected areas: challenges and opportunities for understanding and conserving coastal marine ecosystems', Environmental Conservation 27: 106-9.

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