Translated and annotated by rudolph peters e. J. Brill leiden

148 Jihad in Classical and Modern islam

the propagation of Islam is secured and is not subject to any hindrance on the part of the other state.128

It is evident that the writings I have discussed in this chapter have a highly apologetic character. The classical doctrine of jihad has been stripped of its militancy and is represented as an ade­quate legal system for maintaining peace in the domain of inter­national relations. Emphasis is laid upon the ethical values underlying this system. Islamic international law, according to our Muslim Panglosses, is the best of ail possible systems. It sur­passes positive international law in peacefulness, tolerance, re­spect for human dignity, denunciation of colonialism and exploitation, fidelity to pledges and humanity. To enhance these exalted principles, they contrast them with the wicked practices of contemporary international intercourse, rife with dishonesty, atrocities and outrages against humanity. Moreover, many au­thors extol the legal genius of Islam, as it has been able to develop a theory of international law, long before modern international law came into being. This theory, they argue, is adaptable to sat­isfy present-day conditions and offers solutions to problems that modern international law has until yet not been able to tope with. Its superiority is a consequence of its religious character that be­stows a moral sanction on it. As a result, its enforcement is achieved in a better way than in positive international law.
The writings on Islamic international law are typically part of the mainstream of apologetic writings that defend Islam against an unfavourable image that used to be prevalent in the West. Apart from jihad, this defence is concerned with the position of women, slavery, penal law, human rights and the like. In ail these fields, it is claimed that the Islamic mules can easily stand comparison with Western institutions.

The Relèvance of the Jihad

Doctrine in Sadat's Egypt'

Since the begmning` of the 1970s the doctrine of jihad bas made a comeback in the Islamic world. While in previous decades it appeared to have fâded to a mere theory—mainly a topic for academic discussion-occasionally it!was allowed to play a mar­ginal yole in politics when Islamic dignitaries invoked it to spur on the fighting spirit of Muslim soldiers; in the Arab-Israeli wars. However, since the;lieginning of the 1970s this has changed, and Islamic symbois and idioms have become more central to political discourse as Islamic movements havé reappeared on the political scene. As a consequence, the doctrine; of jihad has returned to

favour.

The following paper deals with the political yole of the jihad in Egypt under Anwar Sadat (1970-81). The word jihad has many meanings, usuallÿ connected with an effort towards a commend­able aim, which 'is;as a mule religious (süch as the struggle against Satan or ones owü evil inclinations) but need not be so. Ten years ago for instance, jihad for cleanliness !of public places and the removal of garbage _from the streets was proclaimed by the au­thorities in Calma ,The terni will be discussed here, however, in its sense of fighting` and armed struggle, which is its principal meaning in traditi'onal Islamic law. Indeed, it seems appropriate to use the terni in this way here, as the period under consideration was terminated by a violent act that was justified by the doctrine

of jihad. - '

When is violence permissible and against whoin? These prac-

From Rudolph Peters, 'The Poitical Relevante of Jihad Doctrine in Sadats Egypt," in National and International Politics in the Middle East. Essaya in Honour of Eiie Kedourie. Edited E. Ineram. tendon: Frank Cass, 1986, pp. 252-271.
190 Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam

frullah Khan, 'Islam and international relations,' Internationale Spec­tator (The Hague), 10 (1956), 11, pp. 308-323; Mahmassani (1966); Mansur (1390/1971); Ahmed Rechid, 'L'Islam et le droit des gens.' In: Académie de Droit International. Recueil des Cours 60 (1937), 11, pp. 375-504; Hânrid Sultan, Ahkdm al-gànûn al-dawli fi 1-sharica al­Islàmiyya (Cairn: Dar al-Nanda al-,Arabiyya, 1970), 269 pp.; Muham­mad Kamil laqüt, Al-shakhsiyya al-dawliyya fil-gànun al-dawlial-'amm wa-l-shar:'a al-Islàmiyya (Cairo: °A1am al-Kutub, 1970-71), 785+14 pp.; There are also a few Arabic authors on international law that mention in passing some of the Islamic prescriptions. E.g.: cAbd al-,Aziz °Ali jàmic, 'Abd al-Fattâh cAbd al-'Aziz and Hasan Darwish, Qànûn al-harb (Cairo: Maktabat al-Anglo-Misriyya, 1952), pp. 37-39; Khâlid Farrâj and Hasan Darwish, AI-majaz fi 1-gànûn al-dawlf al­'àmm (Cairo: Maktabat al-Anglo-Misriyya, 1967), pp. 119-123; Su­mühi Fawq al-'Ada, Al-gànûn al-dawli al-<àmm (Damascus: Matbacat al-Insha', 1960), 1073 pp., passim; Muhammad Hàfiz Ghànim, Al­usûl al-jadida li-l-gànûn al-dawli al-43mm (Cairo: Matbacat Nandat Misr, 1952), pp. 423-424; Id. Mabàdi' al-gànûn al-dawli al-càmm (Cairo: Dar al-Nanda al-Misriyya, 1967), pp. 714-715; Muhammad Talcat al­Chunaymi, Al-Ahkâm al-'amma fi gànûn al-umam. Diràsa fîkuIl min al-fikr al-gharbi wa-l-ishtiràki wa-l-Islami. Qànan al-salant (Alexandria: Munsha'at al-Macàrif, 1970), 1237 pp., passim; Muhammad Sacd al­Din Zaki, Al-haro wa-l-salàm (Cairo: 1965), pp. 25-28, 179-218.

75. E.g.: K.Th. Putter, Beitràge zur Vdlkerrechts-Geschichte und Wis­senschaft (Leipzig: Adolph Wienbrack, 1843), 219 pp.; E. Nys, 'Le droit des gens dans les rapports des Arabes et des Byzantins.' In: E. Nys. Études de droit international public et droit politique (Brussels: Alfred Castaigne, 1896), pp. 46-74.

76. Only according to Shaficite opinion cari the relatives of an unbe­liever, killed by Muslims in defiance of the rules that forbid to kill certain categories of unbelievers, like women, children, etc., or to wage war without previous warning, daim diya (bloodmoney).

77. 'Law of nations or international Iaw is the name for the body of customary or treaty rules which are considered legally binding by States in their intercourse with each other.' L. Oppenheim, Interna­tioal Law. A Treatise (ed. by H. Lauterpacht. London, etc.: Longman, Green & Co., 1955), Vol. I, pp. 4-5.

78. H. Kruse, Islamische Vôlkerrechtslehre. Der Staatsvertrag bel den Ha­nafiten des 5.16. Jahrhunderts d, H. (11.)12. Jahrh. n. Chr.). Gbttingen:

(Bern, 1955), tt'35.

80. Armanazi 11929) p. 40.

81. Hamidullah„(1953), pp. 3-4.

82. Al Ghunauru (1968), p. 96.

83. Al Ghunaum, (1968), p. 195; Yaqût (1970-71), p. 486.

84. Hamidullah (1953), p. 3.

85. Ibid., p. 38

86. Ibid., p. 62

87. Ibid., pp. 231-232.1

88. One autho'r'wôrks the other way round as he tries 'to show that the main principles of international la* are in conformity with the basic doctrine or philosophy of Islam and perhaps may even be said to be - part . of that doctrine ;, or philosophy.' Mahmassani (1966), p. 205...;

89. Art. 38 not 30.-of the Statute of the International Court of Jus­tice says 'The: Court, whose fonction is to decide in accordance with international law such disputés as are submitted to it, shah apply: (a) .; (b) ....(c) .....(d) Subject to the provisions of Article 59, jüdiciâl decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publiciste of the varions nations, as subsidiary means for the determinâtion`of rules of law',

90. Akhtar (1971), p.: 33.

91. Al Ghunaimi (1968), p. 223.

92. Ezzeldm Fodà, The Protected Arab Court of Justice. A Study in Regional Jurisdiction with Specific Reference té the"Muslim Law of Nations (The Hague: Martit us Nijhoff, 1957), pp. 124-139.

93. This attitude cari : also be observed in ;writings on other branches of Islamic Iaw. Often, the same arguments are used. Cf. J. Brugman, De betekenis van ket Mohammedaanse recht in het hedendaagse Egypte (Diss. Leiden)'(The Hague: 1960), pp.' 131-150.

94. E. Nys, Lés Origines de droit international (Brussels, 1894).

95. M. de Taube, 'Le monde de l'Islam et son influence sur l'Europe orientale.' In: Académie de Droit International. Recueil des Cours (1926), I, pp. 380-397;;

96. Armanazi (1919), pp. 50-52; Hamidullah (1953), pp. 66-68; Mansur (1971), pp, 28-30; Al Ghunaimi (1968), pp. 82-86; Daqs (1972), P. 88.

97. J. Brugman (1960), p. 140.

192 Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam Notes 193

p. 149; Muhammad Abù Zahra, A1-calagât al-dawliyya fi I-Islam (Cairn: al-Dâr al-Qawmiyya li-1-Tibà^a wa-l-Nashr, 1384/1964), pp. 20-25.

99. Al Ghunaimi (1968), pp. 196-197.

100. Ibid., p. 198.

101. Ibid., p. 129.

102. To this category belong: Al Ghunaimi (1968), Sultàn (1970), Mansur (1971) and Yaqùt (1970-71).

103. Descriptions of this kind are to be found in: Armanazi (1929), Re­chid (1937), Darâz (1947), Hamidullah (1953), and Mahmassani (1966).

104. Contrary to Bell's translation which reads: 'and.'

105. Al Ghunaimi (1968), pp. 69-70, 124-128; Sultàn (1970), pp. 18-19, 178-185; Akhtar (1971), p. 28.

106. Yaqùt (1970-71), pp. 481-490.

107. Darâz (1950), p. 161; Mahmassani (1966), pp. 234-235; Al Ghunaimi (1968), pp. 91, 96-103; Sultàn (1970), pp. 46, 201-207; Yaqùt (1970­71), pp. 746-747, note 1. One must doubt, however, whether these Muslim authors have really found the philosophers' stone in con­nection with this problem. The crux of international law is the

absence of an authority that can enforce the observance of interna 

tional legal rules by ail legal subjects. Even if we assume that reli­gious sanction can to a certain extent replace a law-enforcing authority, then this would still affect only the Muslim legal subjects.

108. Brugman (1960), p. 137.

109. Armanazi (1929), pp. 38-42; Rechid (1937), pp. 421-433; Abù Zahra

(1964), pp. 72-73; Mahmassani (1966), pp. 264-267; Zuhayli (1965),

pp. 328-345; Sultàn (1970), pp. 199-201; Mansur (1971),

pp. 327-329.

110. Whether this treaty, mentioned by Wàgidi and Ibn Ishâq, has really existed is open to doubt. Cf. W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad in Medina (London, etc.: Oxford University Press, 1956), pp. 196-197.

111. CL Chapter 2, par. 14.

112. Al Ghunaimi (1968), p. 211; Sultàn (1970), p. 209.

113. Abii Zahra (1964), pp. 74-83; Zuhayli (1965), pp. 362-367; Al Ghu­naimi (1968), pp. 184-185; Sultàn (1970), p. 210.

114. Cf. Wensinck (1936-69), Vol. III, p. 98.

115. Muhammad al-Bishbishi, AI-'aldgat al-dawliyya al-islamiyya (Cairn: AI-Majlis al-A=là li-1-Shu'ùn al-Islâmiyya, 1965), pp. 53-54; Ahmad Shalabi, Al jihad fi 1-tafkir al-Islami (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nanda al 

116. Cf. Chapter'

117. Armanazi (1 (1950), pp. (1964), pp. 9! p. 289; Suità (1972), p. 911

118. Cf. pp. 33-3

119. Mansur (197

120. CAbd al-Mut thaqàfa al-Isl

121. Hamidullah'

122. Amin al-Khâ al-Ma°ârif, L p. 283.

123. Cf. pp. 31-3:

124. The most di found in Zut

125. Hamidullah.. sani (1966),j

126. Cf. pp. 38-4

127. Rechid (1937 pp. 356-357 pp. 53-58.

128. Abù Zahra (197

1. Elie

Studies (Lor

2. See Rudolp Modern Hisi

3. This survey

ai-Mushaf w

(Cairn, 1984 Politics,' Ini 44; Fouad A in Egypt; i

73-75; Rechid (1937), pp. 464-466; Hasan

midullah (1933), .pp. 190-194; Abù Zahra iyli (1965), pp "150-161; Mahmassani (1966), p. 248; Mansur (1971), pp. 296-303; Daqs

n.d.), pp. 131

pp. 231-232. djundiyya wa-I1-

106; Zaki (19i

(Helwan: Jamciyyat al 

rûgi' wa-mithai (Cairo: Dàr 203; Hamidullah (1953),

statement of t 65), pp. 403-47 pp. 269-271; 2 -297.

)0-502; Hasan Sshi (1965), p

pp. 78-79; Al`

281-286, 370-:

to Chapter 9

îhatham House V 70), p. 177.

Islam and Coloi Hague, 1979), ~ on the following Sirac al-Din wa-l- !d N Ansari, 'TI il Journal of Midd the Pharaoh's B. in the Political Pi

dernist position is to be Daqs (1972), pp. 550-569. (1965), p. 637; Mahmas 

50) , pp. 22-23; Zuhayli (1965), 53-58; Mahmassani (1966),

iux aimi (1968), pp. 184-185; Shargàwi (1972), p. 40.

,. 149-170)

sion and Other Middle Eastern

The Doctrine of Jihad in

are: Nabil °Abd al-Fattàh,

fi Misr, Ru'ya Awwaliyya

flic Militants in Egyptian Studies, xvi (1984), 123- Religion and Authority ed. J. P. Piscatori (Cam