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Reserve Network Solvency

The U.S. should shift to a reserve model even if we aren’t 100% sure of all the solvency data

Elliot A. Norse, Marine Conservation Biology Institute, 2012

"Marine Reserves: The Best Option for our Oceans?" Ecology and the Environment, http://palumbi.stanford.edu/manuscripts/marine%20reserves%20the%20best%20option%20for%20our%20oceans.pdf (accessed 4/30/2014)

Protected areas have become the last redoubts for many terrestrial species. In the sea they probably have the additional benefit of replenishing depleted popula- tions outside their boundaries. Reserves cannot solve all marine conservation problems, and are likely to work best when integrated with temporary fishery closures, traditional fishery management methods, and buffer zones. Given the urgent need to protect and recover marine biodiversity, the case for reserves is so strong that it seems imprudent to wait until implacable opponents of marine conservation are convinced by the evidence.

Network approach solves

Alison Green, The Nature Conservancy, Brisbane, Australia, Alan White, The Nature Conservancy, Honolulu, and Stacey Kilarski, AECOS, Inc., Honolulu, 2013

"Designing Marine Protected Area Networks to Achieve Fisheries, Biodiversity, and Climate Change Objectives in Tropical Ecosystems: A practitioner guide," United States Agency for International Development’s regional Asia program, http://www.earth2ocean.com/pdfs/MPA%20Practitioner%20Guide%20Final%207Mar13_1763.pdf (accessed 4/29/2014)

Networks of MPAs refer to a collection of individual areas that are ecologically connected. For the same amount of spatial coverage, MPA networks can potentially deliver most of the benefits of well managed individual marine protected areas, but with less costs due to greater flexibility and diversity in size, shape, distribution and location. They can also deliver additional benefits by acting as mutually replenishing networks to facilitate recovery after disturbance. Because of the flexibility in design and application, MPA networks are particularly suited to addressing multiple objectives in various contexts.

Broader management framework solves

Alison Green, The Nature Conservancy, Brisbane, Australia, Alan White, The Nature Conservancy, Honolulu, and Stacey Kilarski, AECOS, Inc., Honolulu, 2013

MPAs, particularly marine reserves, can be an effective tool for both conservation and fisheries management in tropical marine ecosystems. The benefits of MPAs are well documented, including an increase in the diversity, density, biomass, body size and reproductive potential of many species (particularly key fisheries species) within their boundaries. MPAs can also provide conservation and fisheries benefits to surrounding areas through the export of eggs, larvae and adults to other reserves and fished areas. For MPAs to be effective, they need to be embedded within a broader management framework. Thus, MPAs are most likely to achieve their objectives if they are applied as part of an ecosystem-based approach to management which considers the entire ecosystem (including humans) and aims to maintain healthy, productive and resilient ecosystems so they can provide the ecosystem services humans require. The design and effective implementation of networks of MPAs is critical to maximize their benefits to both conservation and fisheries management. If well designed and effectively managed, MPAs can play an important role in ecosystem-based management, including achieving sustainable use of marine resources at multiple scales.

Reserve Network Solvency

Marine Reserve Networking is the best approach to solve biodiversity through a synthesis of intrinsic value and functional use of oceans

Juan Carlos Castilla, Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Ecologia & Biodiversidad, Santiago, Chile, 2012

We must act immediately, using rational, comprehensive, and innovative approaches that include humans as part of ecosystems. In fact, the first preamble clause of the Convention on Biodiversity refers to "the intrinsic value of Biological Diversity", but also to "the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational, and aesthetic values". Ecosystem services can be classified into: provisioning (eg food, genetic resources) regulating (eg water, detoxification control), cultural (eg identity, educational values) and supporting (eg primary production, provision of habitats) (MEA in press). Thus we need to integrate into the concept of "marine reserve networking" a richer set of objectives than simply sequestering species in no-take areas. I suggest that marine management and marine conservation be melted into one enterprise.

Networking facilitates widely separated protected areas providing mutual larvae sources for recovery

Alison Green, The Nature Conservancy, Brisbane, Australia, Alan White, The Nature Conservancy, Honolulu, and Stacey Kilarski, AECOS, Inc., Honolulu, 2013

Protection of habitats in at least three widely separated MPAs, ideally in marine reserves, minimizes the risk that all examples of a habitat will be adversely impacted by the same disturbance (Figure 5).40,51 Thus if some protected habitats survive the disturbance, they can act as a source of larvae to facilitate recovery in other areas. Replication also helps manage the uncertainty associated with biological heterogeneity within habitats. Since variations in communities and species within habitats are often poorly understood, habitat replication increases the likelihood that examples of each are represented within the network of protected areas.

Reserve Network Solvency

Coastline network plan is appropriate placement scheme

NOAA, July 2011

"Marine Reserves in the United States," Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, NOAA Ocean Service, http://marineprotectedareas.noaa.gov/pdf/helpful-resources/factsheets/us_marinereserves.pdf (accessed 4/28/2014)

Where should marine reserves be established? The coastline of the U.S. is 150,590 km long (93,572 miles). This distance includes a wide range of habitat types, from the Arctic to the Great Lakes to the tropics. Each habitat type within a region may support a distinct mix of species, including endangered species and organisms of commercial, recreational, or cultural importance. As a result, what is considered ecologically important and valued often varies from place to place. MPAs are established to achieve specific conservation goals, usually a result of a dialogue among resource managers, scientists, local communities and other stakeholders. Once these goals have been established, the management measures needed to achieve these goals must be evaluated. Because marine reserves are the most highly protected type of MPA, they necessarily involve tradeoffs with socio-economic uses of an area. As a result, they are generally established only when this management tool is determined to be the most appropriate one available to achieve the management objectives. Given the diversity of habitats and communities in coastal and marine areas, management tools must be science-based, and must address local and regional uses of the area.

8.5 percent is the tipping point for EEZ reserves to yield benefits that outweigh their costs

Svati Kirsten Narula, producer of The Atlantic's National channel, April 25, 2014

"A Blueprint for Protecting the World's Oceans," The Atlantic, http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/04/a-blueprint-for-protecting-the-worlds-oceans/284598/ (accessed 4/27/2014)

In March, two economists at Columbia University put some numbers to the upside of MPAs, arguing in a paper for the National Bureau of Economic Research that these zones are only worthwhile if they make up at least 8.5 percent of a country's Exclusive Economic Zone. That's the tipping point at which the costs of implementing MPAs are outweighed by the benefits they confer through boosts to the country's tourism and fishing industries.

Reserve-Specific Solvency

Permanent reserve status maximizes habitat recovery

Alison Green, The Nature Conservancy, Brisbane, Australia, Alan White, The Nature Conservancy, Honolulu, and Stacey Kilarski, AECOS, Inc., Honolulu, 2013

Long-term protection in marine reserves allows the entire range of species and habitats to recover, then maintain, ecosystem health and associated fishery benefits. Some benefits can be realized in the short term (1-5 years), especially if fishing pressure has not been heavy.66, 35 However, 20-40 years of protection is required to allow heavily fished species, particularly longer-lived fisheries species (e.g. sharks and other large predators), the opportunity to grow to maturity, increase in biomass and contribute more, and more robust, eggs to stock recruitment and regeneration (Figure 6). Permanent protection helps maintain these benefits for fishery productivity and biodiversity protection. Shorter term protection may fail to achieve fisheries, biodiversity and ecosystem resilience objectives, because the benefits of improved ecosystem function and fisheries productivity can be quickly lost when marine reserves revert back to open access in heavily fished areas.67,76,43 Thus, marine reserves should be in place for as long as possible, preferably permanently.

Consensus of evidence supports all the benefits of reserves

NOAA, July 2011

Do marine reserves work? Studies conducted in many different habitats and ecosystems have shown their effectiveness. When a reserve is established, species that were previously exploited usually begin to recover. Overall, biomass (the total mass of plants and animals) increases in the reserve, as does the size and density of organisms and the number of species. Reserves also help restore the balance between species including important predator-prey relationships.

Climate Mitigation Add-on Advantage

Protected areas mitigate climate impacts and increase adaptability, saving multiple species

Robin Kundis Craig, Professor of Law and Associate Dean for Environmental Programs, Florida State University College of Law, and Terry Hughes, Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, 2012

"Marine Protected Areas, Marine Spatial Planning, and the Resilience of Marine Ecosystems," Resilience and the Law, http://www.researchgate.net/publication/228138436_Marine_Protected_Areas_Marine_Spatial_Planning_and_the_Resilience_of_Marine_Ecosystems/file/60b7d5254497339a91.pdf (accessed 4/29/2014)

Marine protected areas can contribute to climate change mitigation by protecting certain marine habitats that are especially good at absorbing carbon dioxide, emitted to the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and other human activities. For example, coastal habitats such as salt marshes, sea grasses and mangroves account for less than 0.5% of the world's seabed, but studies have shown they can store up to 71% of the total amount of carbon found in ocean sediments. Marine protected areas can also facilitate adaptation to climate change impacts, through protection of ecologically significant habitats (e.g., sources of larval supply), as well as through protection of multiple sites of similar habitat type.

Climate mitigation should be our top policy priority

UN News Center, April 13, 2014

"'High speed mitigation train needs to leave the station,' concludes long-awaited UN climate report," United Nations News, http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=47569#.U2m5HoFdXtU (accessed 5/2/2014)

“This new report challenges decision makers by presenting to them alternative futures and spelling out the pathway to each. The only safe path forward is to arrive at a carbon neutral world in the second half of this century,” said Christiana Figueres, Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in a statement, adding: “We cannot play a waiting game where we bet on future technological miracles to emerge and save the day - and why would we?” Sunday's IPCC release, the third installment of the Panel's Fifth Assessment report, spotlights the options for mitigating climate change and the ir underlying technological, economic and institutional requirements. It lays out risks, uncertainty and ethical foundations of climate change mitigation policies on the global, national and sub-national level, investigates mitigation measures for all major sectors and assesses investment and finance issues.

International Law Add-On Advantage

Protected area expansion meets core requirements of Convention on Biological Diversity and Jakarta Mandate

Rio Conference participants also adopted the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (the Biodiversity Convention), which entered into force in December 1993. Under article 6, parties to the Convention are supposed to develop national strategies to conserve and sustainably use their biodiversity, while article 8 explicitly promotes the use of protected areas. Since the second Conference of the Parties in 1995, these biodiversity goals have been explicitly extended to coastal and marine biodiversity through the Jakarta Mandate. In 2004, a decision of the Conference of the Parties implementing the Jakarta Mandate made it a high priority for party nations to establish marine and coastal management frameworks that incorporate MPAs. Moreover, at the very first conference of the Parties in 1994, the International Coral Reef Initiative was announced to increase knowledge about and protections for the world’s coral reefs.

This is key to human survival

Ahmed Djoghlaf, Executive Secretary, Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010

"Interdependence of Biodiversity and Development Under Global Change," Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CDB Technical Series No. 54, http://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-54-en.pdf (accessed 5/2/2014)

At its second meeting, held in Jakarta, November 1995, the Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted the ecosystem approach as the primary framework for action under the Convention. The Ecosystem Approach recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems. This has been known for a long time, but it has yet to be internalized by the whole society to assure present and future human survival.

International Cooperation Solvency

Need international framework to establish global networked reserves

Richard Page, Senior Campaigner, Oceans Campaign, Greenpeace International, July 2010

"Emergency Oceans Rescue Plan: Implementing the Marine Reserves Roadmap to Recovery," Greenpeace.org, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/PageFiles/163940/Emergency%20Oceans%20Rescue%20Plan%20FINAL%20LR.pdf (accessed 4/28/2014)

Most countries have sufficient legislation to enable the establishment of marine reserves within their national waters. As the Mediterranean and Pacific case studies illustrate, the situation with regards to ocean conservation differs varies greatly between different high seas areas and the provisions are at best piecemeal. In the short term, it is crucial that existing bodies cooperate and coordinate activities and that existing arrangements are harmonised to ensure that significant progress is made towards achieving agreed conservation objectives. While in some areas such as the Mediterranean or the North Atlantic, the various existing political mechanisms for oceans protection could cooperate to designate areas, in other areas there is no framework for doing this. The reality today is that for the majority of the high seas, no clear mechanism under UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS) and the CBD has been put in place for implementing marine reserves on the high seas. Without such a mechanism, our oceans: the ecosystems, species and genetic diversity beyond national jurisdiction are exploited by all, protected by none.

International coordination is available through private sector technology

Marex, April 8, 2014

"Maritime Security Solution," Marex News, http://www.maritime-executive.com/pressrelease/Maritime-Security-Solution-2014-04-08/ (accessed 423.2014)

Liquid Robotics and Ultra Electronics USSI today announced the joint development of a revolutionary and cost effective surveillance system for the global maritime security market. This new product leverages the Liquid Robotics Wave Glider, the world’s first wave powered ocean robot, with Ultra Electronics USSI’s state of the art acoustic sensing and signal processing to provide a persistent, best of breed, surveillance capability. This solution helps address the critical need for affordable, long duration, maritime surveillance of the world’s Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), Exclusion Economic Zones (EEZs), ports and coastlines. “Countries around the globe are losing valuable natural resources and economic opportunity without the ability to persistently patrol their coastlines, MPAs and EEZs,” said Bill Vass, CEO of Liquid Robotics. “This strategic partnership will bring to market a powerful solution with the ability to help close this gap globally.”

Global network of marine reserves averts impending extinction wave

Richard Page, Senior Campaigner, Oceans Campaign, Greenpeace International, July 2010

The establishment of a network of large-scale marine reserves is not an academic exercise, but must to be seen in the context of the worsening ocean crisis. A number of important studies recently published underscore the need for urgent action. The CBD’s Global Biodiversity Outlook 3 points out that most future scenarios project continuing high levels of extinctions and loss of habitats throughout this century, with associated decline of some ecosystem services important to human well-being. ‘The risk emerging for a sixth mass extinction event in the history of life on Earth’ is highlighted. Overfishing is identified as one of the primary drivers leading to severe damage of ocean ecosystems, the collapse of fish populations and the failure of vital fisheries. The report is also clear about the need to protect ecosystem services and that cumulative pressures are edging many ecosystems on both land and sea towards certain thresholds or tipping points which if reached will lead to massive biodiversity loss.

Biodiversity Advantage: Reserves Increase Biodiversity

Reserves make the entire ocean more diverse

Waitt Foundation, 2014

"Marine Protected Areas: A Vital Tool for Conservation," Waitt Foundation, http://waittfoundation.org/marine-protected-areas (accessed 4/30/2014)

Like national parks and wilderness areas, marine reserves are areas where nothing can be taken out and only recreational and research activities are permitted. Marine reserves prohibit destructive activities like dredging and oil exploration, and they safeguard marine wildlife by excluding fishing. The result is a more diverse underwater realm, relative to exploited areas, with more large fish and pristine habitat.

Reserves ensure supplies of young organisms and spawning areas, enhancing biodiversity

NOAA, July 2011

Both large and small reserves have been proven effective at increasing the size and abundance of organisms within their boundaries, and new studies are emerging that show how reserves can help support the ecosystems and fisheries in areas adjacent to them. Large reserves tend to support a greater diversity of organisms than small reserves. Perhaps more important than size, a reserve has to include the right habitats. Protection of rookeries or spawning areas helps to assure that larval and juvenile organisms continue to broadcast across a region, supporting both ecosystems and commercial and recreational fishing. Even a small reserve centered on such an area can have widespread positive impacts. In areas highly impacted by people, the preservation of the remaining least disturbed habitat can protect threatened or endangered species and habitats by providing a place of refuge, as well as supporting the diversity of adjacent areas by maintaining a supply of young organisms.

Biodiversity Impacts

Maintaining biodiversity is key to survive climate change

Science Daily, November 17, 2011

"Biodiversity can promote survival on a warming planet, mathematical model shows," Sciencedaily.com, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/11/111106151459.htm (accessed 4/30/2014)

Whether a species can evolve to survive climate change may depend on the biodiversity of its ecological community, according to a new mathematical model that simulates the effect of climate change on plants and pollinators. The findings, published in the early online edition of Evolutionary Applications, are important because some species that have survived large climatic change in the past might not be able to survive current and ongoing climate change. In the study, researchers used computer simulations to examine the effect of climate change on populations of flowering plants and their insect pollinators. Ecologists have known for many years that climate change alters the timing of when plants flower and when insects emerge. For example, the onset of new blossoms in many temperate plants in the Northern Hemisphere and the first emergence of some insects have occurred earlier with global warming. If climate change causes species that rely on one another, known as "mutualists," to be active at different times, then these species may be threatened with extinction. The question that remains is whether the process of evolution can mitigate the potential damage that climate change can inflict upon the timing of life cycle events.

Allows diversity to enhance survival of community

Science Daily, November 17, 2011

"Biodiversity can promote survival on a warming planet, mathematical model shows," Sciencedaily.com, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/11/111106151459.htm (accessed 4/30/2014)

Whether a mutualism survives, however, can depend upon the density and distribution of other species in the community. For example, under many circumstances, the presence of alternative pollinators available to the focal plant can help to protect both the focal plant and the focal pollinator from extinction. "In such cases, habitat fragmentation or loss of native pollinators might compound the threat of climate change to mutualisms," said Tucker Gilman, a postdoctoral fellow at the National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis and the paper's lead author. Mutualists are likely to be especially sensitive to rapid climate change, according to the study. "The results are troubling because anthropogenic (or human caused) climate change is thought to be happening up to ten times faster than any natural climate change in the past 500,000 years," Gilman said. "This means that mutualisms that have survived past climate change events may still be vulnerable to anthropogenic climate change."

Reserves Solve Biodiversity

Reserves restore biodiversity to both sedentary and migrating animals

NOAA, July 2011

The mobility of organisms is a key factor in how reserves affect adjacent areas. Many species of fish, such as coral reef fish or rockfish, spend much of their lives in the same area. For these species, the benefits of establishing a reserve are mostly observed within its boundaries. Other species, such as the fish and crustaceans present in seagrass beds, are highly mobile, moving in and out of different habitat types over the period of a tidal cycle, day, or season. Larvae and juveniles of mobile species produced within a reserve or network of reserves can enhance the diversity and abundance of organisms across a region as they migrate and support food webs by becoming prey for other species. Similarly, highly mobile adult animals can be caught when they move outside the reserve, improving commercial and recreational fishing.

Reserves restore habitats

NOAA, July 2011

Marine reserves are an important tool because they reduce human pressures and allow the natural connections within an ecosystem to recover from many environmental stressors. Establishing a marine reserve not only protects and helps to restore the habitats and populations of organisms within the reserve, it can also enhance habitats and populations throughout a region. This in turn supports human communities by protecting special places and resources and the economic, social and cultural values they provide.

Solving fishing pressure is a critical component in restoring resilience

Richard Page, Senior Campaigner, Oceans Campaign, Greenpeace International, July 2010

Microorganisms, including plankton, bacteria and viruses, account for up to 90% of living biomass in the sea. Plankton uses solar energy to drive the nutrient cycles that make the planet habitable for larger organisms. Temperature increases and fresh water inputs from melting glaciers – due to climate change – can lead to stratification, or changes in vertical mixing. This can separate phytoplankton from their nutrients, thus affecting primary production. A decrease in upwelling frequency or intensity could result in decreased productivity. In combination with other anthropogenic stressors such as fishing pressure, these effects will be exacerbated and are likely to have profound and unpredictable impacts on marine ecosystems. Following decades of overfishing and pollution, rapid climate change and increasing ocean acidification mean that protecting marine ecosystems and building their resilience is more important than ever before in human history.

Biodiversity Impact Uniqueness

We're heading toward the cliff: Mass extinction is most salient current threat

Associated Press, June 6, 2012

"UN: Humanity speeding down 'unsustainable path'" CBSNews.com, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/un-humanity-speeding-down-unsustainable-path/ (accessed 4/30/2014)

A United Nations report warns that the earth's environmental systems "are being pushed towards their biophysical limits" and that sudden, irreversible and potentially catastrophic changes are looming. The UN's Environment Program says that climate change, the depletion of the ozone layer, plummeting fish stocks and the mass extinction of animals are among the most worrisome environmental threats. "The world continues to speed down an unsustainable path despite over 500 internationally agreed goals and objectives to support the sustainable management of the environment and improve human wellbeing," a press release for the report states. The 525-page report released Wednesday said little or no progress has been made in recent years toward meeting international targets for reducing environmental destruction.

Heading towards the tipping point: species decline sparks war, economic collapse and famine

Stephanie Pappas, LiveScience Senior Writer, June 7, 2012

"Earth's ecosystems nearing catastrophic 'tipping point,' warn scientists (+video)," Christian Science Monitor Live Science, http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2012/0607/Earth-s-ecosystems-nearing-catastrophic-tipping-point-warn-scientists-video (accessed 4/30/2014)

Earth is rapidly headed toward a catastrophic breakdown if humans don't get their act together, according to an international group of scientists. Writing Wednesday (June 6) in the journal Nature, the researchers warn that the world is headed toward a tipping point marked by extinctions and unpredictable changes on a scale not seen since the glaciers retreated 12,000 years ago. "There is a very high possibility that by the end of the century, the Earth is going to be a very different place," study researcher Anthony Barnosky told LiveScience. Barnosky, a professor of integrative biology from the University of California, Berkeley, joined a group of 17 other scientists to warn that this new planet might not be a pleasant place to live. "You can envision these state changes as a fast period of adjustment where we get pushed through the eye of the needle," Barnosky said. "As we're going through the eye of the needle, that's when we see political strife, economic strife, war and famine."

Heading towards mass species loss, resource depletion, and instability

Stephanie Pappas, LiveScience Senior Writer, June 7, 2012

The results are difficult to predict, because tipping points, by their definition, take the planet into uncharted territory. Based on past transitions, Barnosky and his colleagues predict a major loss of species (during the end of the last glacial period, half of the large-bodied mammal species in the world disappeared), as well as changes in the makeup of species in various communities on the local level. Meanwhile, humans may well be knotting our own noose as we burn through Earth's resources. "These ecological systems actually give us our life support, our crops, our fisheries, clean water," Barnosky said. As resources shift from one nation to another, political instability can easily follow.

Overfishing: Time Frame

Empirically restrictions allow recovery, but half of all stocks are in decline now, so we must act

Erika Bolstad, staffwriter for McClatchy Newspapers, September 27, 2012

"World fish supply declining, but there’s hope for recovery," McClatchy D.C., http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/09/27/169934/world-fish-supply-declining-but.html#storylink=cpy

It shows that more than half of the world’s fisheries are in decline. But fish stocks where data is plentiful are doing better than the lesser-studied fisheries, regardless of the country managing them. In the U.S., many large fisheries are beginning to recover. Their recovery, the study’s authors say, is thanks to setting allowable fishing levels based on science, closing some areas to allow for rebuilding, and using catch shares

Overfishing is a greater threat than climate change to fish stocks; we’ve already lost 90% of big fish as of 2010

Tom Levitt, environmental reporter for CNN, the Earth Island Journal, Ecologist, Financial Times, March 27, 2013

"Overfished and under-protected: Oceans on the brink of catastrophic collapse," CNN World, http://www.cnn.com/2013/03/22/world/oceans-overfishing-climate-change/ (accessed 5/3/2014)

Remoteness, however, has not left the oceans and their inhabitants unaffected by humans, with overfishing, climate change and pollution destabilizing marine environments across the world. Many marine scientists consider overfishing to be the greatest of these threats. The Census of Marine Life, a decade-long international survey of ocean life completed in 2010, estimated that 90% of the big fish had disappeared from the world's oceans, victims primarily of overfishing.

Overfishing: Time Frame

We must act now to solve overfishing

Trevor Manuel, Global Ocean Commission Co-Chair; José María Figueres, former President of Costa Rica; and Carol Browner, Global Ocean Commissioner; former administrator, US Environmental Protection Agency, March 31, 2014

"Oceans Suffer Tragedy of the Commons," Financial Times, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/fbe13928-b5cb-11e3-a1bd-00144feabdc0.html#axzz30KrmLRpQ (accessed 4/27/2014)

The IPCC report confirms that the current rate of ocean acidification is unprecedented in the last 65 or even 300 million years. Experts are calling climate change the “death knell” for vital coral reef ecosystems. Added to this, warming ocean temperatures are projected to cause large-scale shifts in the geographic distribution of fish stocks, representing a serious threat to food security, in particular for poorer communities in tropical coastal regions dependent on fish for nutrition. These facts emphasise that we should act now on the other non-climate threats currently undermining ocean health.

90 percent of stocks on brink of collapse now

"Oceans Suffer Tragedy of the Commons," Financial Times, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/fbe13928-b5cb-11e3-a1bd-00144feabdc0.html#axzz30KrmLRpQ (accessed 4/27/2014)

Almost 90 per cent of all marine fisheries are either over-exploited or fully exploited, and many important commercial fish stocks are close to collapse. With the global population moving towards 9bn, we should be actively protecting and nurturing all sources of food. The lawless nature of overfishing on the high seas means we are squandering one of the most precious of these. Overfishing is a highly solvable problem. Stricter quotas, more stringent monitoring and compliance measures, and more marine protected areas, are all proven effective methods that we should be scaling up in order to end the appalling “tragedy of the commons” free-for-all, and to build resilience in a system under pressure. The new IPCC report should not have us wringing our hands. Climate change is transforming the ocean ecosystem and the decline in ocean health is costing us dearly. Action to protect and reinvigorate this highly threatened system is required immediately.

Overfishing Causes Global Famine

Overfishing causes mass starvation; food stocks and oceans are on the verge of collapse everywhere

Stephen Lendman, Project Censored Award-Winning Journalist for Progressive Radio Network, February 19, 2012

"Depleting the seas of fish," Steve Lendman Blog, http://sjlendman.blogspot.com/2012/02/depleting-seas-of-fish.html (accessed 5/2/2014)

Notably, industrial fishing removed 90% of large predatory fish populations, including sharks, tuna and marlin. In the past 30 years, North Atlantic stocks of bull, dusky, and smooth hammerhead sharks declined up to 99%. Other predator fish losses, including groundfish, altered the composition of remaining catches. Declines in Northwest Atlantic bottom dwelling fishes increased mollusk and crustacean catches. In 1989, yields peaked at about 90 million tons annually. Since then, they declined or stagnated. Valued species like bluefin tuna, orange roughy and Chilean sea bass collapsed. Overfishing, pollution, habitat destruction, and acidification produced systemic ecological destruction. As a result, world oceans and valuable food stocks hang in the balance.

Global poor are disproportionately affected by fishing-induced food collapses

U. Thara Srinivasan, scientist at the Paciﬁc Ecoinformatics and Computational Ecology Lab, Berkeley, William W.L. Cheung, lecturer in marine ecosystem services at the University of East Anglia, Reg Watson, senior research fellow at the University of British Columbia Fisheries Centre, and U. Rashid Sumaila, associate professor and director of the Fisheries Centre and the Fisheries Economics Research Unit at the University of British Columbia Fisheries Centre, September 2010

"Overﬁshing Trends and the Global Food Crisis," Pew Environmental Group Ocean Science Series, http://www.pewtrusts.org/uploadedFiles/wwwpewtrustsorg/News/Press_Releases/Protecting_ocean_life/Pew%20OSS%20Food%20Security%20FINAL.pdf (accessed 5/2/2014)

This study shows that the burden of catch losses falls hardest on the world’s poor. Although the authors estimated that the largest absolute catch losses over the last 50 years occurred in Europe and North America, where intense, industrial fishing has been practiced the longest, these areas do not have widespread undernourishment, and can offset losses with imports, increasingly from developing countries.

Overfishing Causes Global Famine

Overfishing results in malnourishment of 20 million people a year

Fish are a vital source of nourishment, especially to people in the world’s poorest nations. Widespread overfishing has led to a decline in catch globally; however, the links between overfishing and food security have not been well-understood. Thara Srinivasan of the Pacific Ecoinformatics and Computational Ecology Lab, Rashid Sumaila of the University of British Columbia and their collaborators assessed potential losses, globally and regionally, in fisheries catch (reported landings) and revenue (landed, or dockside, value of the catch) resulting from overfishing. They found a third to a half of commercial marine species had been overfished during the past half-century, with billions in potential revenue lost. By placing country-level catch loss trends in the context of undernourishment levels in many of the world’s poorest countries, the authors estimated that in 2000 the additional catch from sustainable fishing could have helped 20 million people cover their food deficit and avert undernourishment.

We'll run out of fish stocks within our lifetimes

Stephen Lendman, Project Censored Award-Winning Journalist for Progressive Radio Network, February 19, 2012

"Depleting the seas of fish," Steve Lendman Blog, http://sjlendman.blogspot.com/2012/02/depleting-seas-of-fish.html (accessed 5/2/2014)

International ecologists and economists believe "the world will run out of seafood by 2048" if current fishing rates continue. A journal Science study "conclude(d) that overfishing, pollution and other environmental factors are wiping out important species" globally. They're also impeding world oceans' ability to produce seafood, filter nutrients, and resist disease. Marine biologist Boris Worm warned: "We really see the end of the line now. It's within our lifetime. Our children will see a world without seafood if we don't change things."

Reserves solve overfishing

Spillover causes replenishment across many regions

Underwater Times, December 23, 2010

"Study: Drifting Fish Larvae Allow Marine Reserves To Rebuild Fisheries; 'Should Help Resolve Some Skepticism About Reserves'," Underwater Times News Service, http://www.underwatertimes.com/news.php?article_id=93110860257 (accessed 5/3/2014)

"We already know that marine reserves will grow larger fish and some of them will leave that specific area, what we call spillover," said Mark Hixon, a professor of marine biology at OSU. "Now we've clearly shown that fish larvae that were spawned inside marine reserves can drift with currents and replenish fished areas long distances away. This is a direct observation, not just a model, that successful marine reserves can sustain fisheries beyond their borders," he said. "That's an important result that should help resolve some skepticism about reserves. And the life cycle of our study fish is very similar to many species of marine fish, including rockfishes and other species off Oregon. The results are highly relevant to other regions."

Protected areas solve better than managed fisheries

David Shiffman, Senior Correspondent for Southern Fried Science, January 20, 2011

"Can marine protected areas save the oceans? Under certain circumstances, maybe," Southern Fried Science, http://www.southernfriedscience.com/?p=8999

Yes, adult spillover from an MPA will result in less yield than a well-managed fishery, but it will result in much more yield than a poorly managed fishery that collapsed. Shipp would also do well to keep in mind that fish inside an MPA are much larger than those outside, and for some fisheries catching fewer larger fish can be the economic equivalent of catching more smaller fish. This principle may not support supertrawlers and factory ships, but it can likely support coastal fishing fleets. It can also benefit charter boats, whose hires only want to catch a few big fish to begin with.

Reserves Solve Overfishing

Reserves facilitate successful replenishment, even when far away from original sources

Underwater Times, December 23, 2010

Marine ecologists at Oregon State University have shown for the first time that tiny fish larvae can drift with ocean currents and "re-seed" fish stocks significant distances away – more than 100 miles in a new study from Hawaii. The findings add credibility to what scientists have believed for some time, but until now been unable to directly document. The study also provides a significant demonstration of the ability of marine reserves to rebuild fishery stocks in areas outside the reserves

Restrictions solve overfishing

David Shiffman, Senior Correspondent for Southern Fried Science, January 20, 2011

"Can marine protected areas save the oceans? Under certain circumstances, maybe," Southern Fried Science, http://www.southernfriedscience.com/?p=8999

The results of this meta-analysis provide strong evidence indicating that when fishing is restricted, fish populations will increase. In other words, “duh”. While it’s nice to see such powerful evidence that MPAs are nearly always effective, these conclusions aren’t really surprising. It makes total sense than when the primary threat to a population is removed, that population will increase. It’s another claim by MPA supporters that is only recently gaining broad acceptance- the claim that closing some areas to fishing will actually benefit fisheries.

Management of food stocks is key to solvency regardless of myriad alternate causes

Although many factors can contribute to catch losses, including the rising demand for fish, poor monitoring of fish stocks, capacity enhancing subsidies and illegal, unregulated or unreported fishing, the authors suggest some of these issues can be mitigated. Options include rebuilding vulnerable fish stocks wherever possible through such efforts as catch quotas or limits, improving monitoring capabilities to track more precisely where and how stocks are being overfished and providing incentives for good stewardship for fisheries resources.

Overfishing Causes Species Extinction

Huge wave of fish extinction coming due to overfishing

Ocean Sentry, August 21, 2009

"Overfishing: Oceans are Dying," oceansentry.org, http://www.oceansentry.org/en/2557-sobrepesca-muerte-de-los-oceanos.html#sthash.oon8AdUC.dpuf (accessed 5/5/2014)

Overfishing takes place when the fish are captured at a faster rate than they are able to reproduce. Today, 90 percent of the sea species at the top position in the marine ecosystems food chain or biggest predators, such as tuna, cod, sword fish and sharks have practically been eliminated or are in a situation of critical decline. The result is an unstable ecosystem that involves the reorganisation of the seas ecosystems with unknown consequences of the oceans balance. Scientists estimate that if overfishing continues at this rate, certain fish will have become extinct by the year 2048.

Collapse of fish stocks sparks diversity collapse

Stephen Lendman, Project Censored Award-Winning Journalist for Progressive Radio Network, February 19, 2012

"Depleting the seas of fish," Steve Lendman Blog, http://sjlendman.blogspot.com/2012/02/depleting-seas-of-fish.html (accessed 5/2/2014)

Oregon State University marine biologist Jane Lubchenco said the study shows fish stocks are in trouble. "I think people don't get it," she said. "If there is a problem with the oceans, how come the case in my grocery store is so full? There is a disconnect." National Environmental Trust vice president Gerald Leape said "This should be a wake-up call to our leaders, both internationally and domestically, that they need to protect our fish stocks. Otherwise they will go away." Researchers conducted dozens of controlled experiments. They also examined UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) worldwide catch data since 1950 and ecosystem records. They include sediment cores and archival data going back a 1,000 years. They said losing so many species is eroding marine ecosystem viability and their ability to resist environmental stresses. "In 12 marine ecosystems surveyed, they found that a decline in biodiversity of 50 percent or more cut the number of viable fisheries by 33 percent, reduced nursery habitats by 69 percent and cut the ocean's capacity to filter and detoxify contaminants by 63 percent."

Answers to Anthropocentrism and Deep Ecology

Reserves are justified in a paradigm that moves beyond utilitarianism into an ethics of coexistence

Jon Nevill, director of OnlyOnePlanet Consulting (specialising in aquatic conservation policy), April 26, 2008

"Ethics, fisheries, and marine protected areas," Onlyoneplanet.com, http://www.onlyoneplanet.com/marineProtectedAreaEthics.doc (accessed 5/4/2014)

The planet’s biodiversity is in decline, and marine ecosystems are in urgent need of protection. Fishing (in its many manifestations) is the single most important threat to marine biodiversity – from a global perspective. The creation of marine protected areas is usually justified in terms of utilitarian needs relating to the conservation of biodiversity or the protection and enhancement of fish stocks. Could such reserves also be justified in terms of ethics? In spite of the general absence of discussion of ethics within areas of marine science or fisheries management, a substantial and long-standing literature exists from which an ethical basis for the establishment of protected areas could be drawn. This paper briefly reviews some of the landmarks within this literature, and without apology for an explicit ethical position recommends increased discussion and use of ethical arguments within the marine community. Far from harvesting other life forms in a sustainable way, humans are gradually but inexorably killing the wild living inhabitants of our planet, and destroying the places in which they live. The time to adopt a new ethical position has already passed with some talk but almost no action. We need to accord a right to ‘peaceful coexistence’ to at least a fair proportion of the other living residents of the planet – an approach which in fact aligns with the scientific recommendations of many conservation biologists. The matter is now so urgent that it requires the attention of every marine scientist.

Closing all activity meets deep ecological principles

David Orton, coordinator of the Green Web environmental research group, December 1999/January 2000

"Marine Protected Areas: A Human-Centric Concept," Ecocentrism Homepage, http://www.ecospherics.net/pages/mpa.htm (accessed 5/4/2014)

The true conservationist, or Earth-citizen, must be prepared to oppose his/her own self-interest for the benefit of other creatures and their habitats. The justification for MPAs should not be one of self-interest. Protection of marine areas should not be based on which (human) shareholders shout the loudest in opposition. A fundamental question about MPAs is whether to appeal to economic interests or to rise above this, by promoting overall ecological and social interests. A Marine Protected Area must mean full ecological protection from human exploitive interests, otherwise the term itself becomes debased. Degrees of restriction of the human use of an oceans area could be encompassed, using another term such as Marine Regulated Area, rather than using, and debasing, the term "protected area."

Answers to Anthropocentrism and Deep Ecology

Reserves as part of a global vision are the best way to free protected areas from the capitalist paradigm, which is the underlying cause of marine exploitation

David Orton, coordinator of the Green Web environmental research group, December 1999/January 2000

"Marine Protected Areas: A Human-Centric Concept," Ecocentrism Homepage, http://www.ecospherics.net/pages/mpa.htm (accessed 5/4/2014)

The nature of our capitalist society influences how we think about MPAs. I support protecting marine areas, but free of human exploitation. MPAs need to become a reflection of ecocentric thinking. The question is: Will MPAs be the beginning of a new ecological way of preservation or a subterfuge for the continued industrial exploitation of the oceans using greenwashing? A step in choosing marine areas to protect is to assess all the stakeholders. Humans are one group-those with a direct economic interest being only a sub-group. After all, the term protected area implies protection from humans. The other stakeholders, who usually remain voiceless at meetings, are the marine animals, plants and other organisms. Their interests have to be given more weight than human concerns. MPAs cannot be just minor set-asides. We cannot have dead zones between them. MPAs are not about creating wildlife reservations, because the nature of our society influences life inside these areas. Wider phenomena, like global warming, do not stop at MPA boundaries. Therefore a new, global, marine vision is necessary.

The marine protection community should stop arguing about anthropocentrism and ecocentrism and instead come together to address biodiversity

Ray Hilborn, professor of aquatic and fisheries science, University of Washington, April 12, 2014

"Protecting Marine Biodiversity with 'New' Conservation," Cool Green Science: The Science Blog of the Nature Conservancy, http://blog.nature.org/science/2014/04/12/nature-longread-protecting-marine-biodiversity-new-conservation-ray-hilborn/ (accessed 4/30/2014)

The actual rancor seems to stem more from a philosophical question of whether biodiversity should be conserved for its own sake or because it is valued by humans (Soule 2013) and from criticism of some of the icons of the conservation movement in other writings by Kareiva (Karevia et al. 2011). These debates need to be set aside and the energy of the conservation community needs to be focused on what will work best to protect biodiversity.

AT Economy Disadvantages: Protection Doesn’t Harm Economy

Protected areas spur productivity and growth

Karen Garrison, Co-Director, National Resources Defense Council Oceans Program, San Francisco, August 31, 2010

"Marine Protected Areas hold promise for better fishing and economic boost," National Resources Defense Council Switchboard, http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/kgarrison/marine_protected_areas_hold_pr.html (accessed 5/1/2014)

Healthier ocean systems draw divers, tide-poolers, wildlife watchers, and other ocean lovers to the coast. And as fish get bigger in a protected area, productivity can increase exponentially relative to fished areas, seeding those surrounding areas with larvae and fish. Steve Gaines, Dean of the Bren School of Environmental Science and Management at UC Santa Barbara, summed up recent findings: “there is plenty of new evidence to show that if reserves are designed well, they can benefit both fish and fishermen.”

Communities restore costs and gain payoffs quickly

Brian Clark Howard, Environmental Reporter for National Geographic, April 3, 2013

"New Research: Marine Reserves Can Stoke Local Economies," National Geographic News Watch, http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/03/new-research-marine-reserves-can-stoke-local-economies/ (accessed 4/28/2014)

On April 3, 2013, National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Enric Sala and a team of colleagues from around the world published a scientific paper called “A General Business Model for Marine Reserves” in the journal PLoS ONE. Building on the work of National Geographic’s Pristine Seas Expeditions (see clickable map below), the team analyzed available data to show that “marine reserves are an effective tool for protecting biodiversity locally, with potential economic benefits including enhancement of local fisheries, increased tourism, and maintenance of ecosystem services.” The scientists demonstrated that the added value of marine reserves to local communities can make up for their initial cost in as short as five years. The team also developed a framework that others can use to estimate the value of a marine reserve in their area.

AT Economy Disadvantages: Protection Doesn’t Harm Economy

Protected areas boost economy: tourism, biomass, future stock increases

Enric Sala, Explorer-In-Residence for National Geographic, April 3, 2013

There are benefits inside and outside the boundaries of marine reserves. Inside fish and other marine life increase their biomass. Outside the reserve boundaries some of these fish spill over. There is also a release of eggs and larvae to nearby unprotected areas. This spill over replenishes local fish populations, which helps local fishermen. Inside the reserve there is often a boost in tourism. There are few places where there are still lots of fish, so people flock to these places. What we showed with the modeling is that a reserve’s value can be greater than its pre-reserve value in as little as five years. So reserves not only have ecological benefits in terms of protecting biodiversity, but they are also a good business.

Evidence concludes that protected areas don't harm fishing economies

Karen Garrison, Co-Director, National Resources Defense Council Oceans Program, San Francisco, August 31, 2010

At the same time, evidence refutes the concern that marine protected areas will hurt fishing industry bottom lines. Despite sport fishing industry predictions that a network of marine reserves around the northern Channel Islands would cause $50 to $100 million dollars in economic losses, scientific monitoring has shown that sport fishing actually increased in the five years after reserves were established, as did commercial landings of squid, sea urchin, and lobster. Marine reserves elsewhere have shown similar results: in the Great Barrier Reef, despite fishing industry concerns about losses, the number of recreational fishing licenses has continued its upward trend since the reserves were established in 2003.

AT Political Disadvantages: Plan is Not Politically Controversial

Multiple reauthorizations of MSA show the process of increasing protection isn’t politically controversial

Dave Bard, Press Secretary, Pew Charitable Trusts, January 11, 2012

"The Magnuson-Stevens Act: A Bipartisan Legacy of Success," Pew Environmental Initiatives, http://www.pewenvironment.org/news-room/fact-sheets/the-magnuson-stevens-act-a-bipartisan-legacy-of-success-85899368723 (accessed 5/2/2014)

Over the years, Congress has recognized the value of protecting ocean fish resources from overfishing (taking fish faster than they can reproduce) by providing managers with the legal tools to sustainably manage our nation's ocean fisheries. Through multiple reauthorizations, Congress strengthened the MSA by mandating an end to overfishing through science-based annual catch limits and also by requiring that depleted fish populations be rebuilt to healthy levels that can support thriving commercial and recreational fisheries. Both Republicans and Democrats have supported this law since it was enacted more than 35 years ago.

Marine conservation enjoys perpetual bipartisan support

Shiva Polefka, Research Associate for the Ocean Program at the Center for American Progress, August 28, 2013

"New Life for the National Marine Sanctuary System," Center for American Progress, http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/news/2013/08/28/73167/new-life-for-the-national-marine-sanctuary-system/ (accessed 5/2/2014)

Public ownership and federal protection of America’s natural and historical treasures are essential elements of our nation’s identity and its heritage. Recent polling shows that protecting public spaces for future generations enjoys significant bipartisan support, and special designation and public ownership of these areas have been called one of America’s “best ideas.”

Republicans and Democrats are both on board with marine protection

Dave Bard, Press Secretary, Pew Charitable Trusts, January 11, 2012

Since 1976, when what is now called the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA) was first signed into law, Republicans and Democrats have agreed that conserving America's ocean fish makes good economic and environmental sense.

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