1. Introduction Ecosystem-Specific Tools and Technologies Coastal/Marine

Use of Shrubs as Nurse Plants: A New Technique for Reforestation in Mediterranean Mountains

Common techniques currently used for afforestation in the Mediterranean basin consider the pre-existing vegetation (mainly shrubs) as a source of competition for trees, and consequently it is generally eliminated before planting. Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that woody plants can facilitate the establishment of understory seedlings in environments that, like the Mediterranean area, are characterized by a pronounced dry season. In this study, we experimentally analyze the usefulness of shrubs as nurse plants for afforestation of two native conifers, Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) and Pinus nigra Arnold (black pine). The results show that the use of shrubs as nurse plants is a technique that offers both economic and ecological advantages, in terms of savings in labor and plant material and reduced and even negligible impact on the pre-existing vegetation.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Castro, J., R. Zamora, J.A. Hodar and J.M, Gomez (2002) Use of Shrubs as Nurse Plants: A New Technique for Reforestation in Mediterranean Mountains. Restoration Ecology 10(2): 297-305.

http://hera.ugr.es/doi/15010739.pdf

Ecological Restoration in Degraded Drylands: The Need to Improve the Seedling Quality and Site Conditions in the Field

In this paper we analyze innovative nursery and field techniques oriented to reduce outplanting stress. In the nursery, the main research lines are directed towards improving seedling quality, especially its resistance to water stress, by means of the use of containers gauged to the different root growth patterns of the species, the use of hydrogel to improve the water holding capacity of the substrate and reduce post-planting stress, the use of drought preconditioning to induce mechanisms for drought resistance, the use of fertilization according to field conditions and target seedlings for restoration projects and the use of growth regulators to control the biomass distribution within the seedlings.

Practitioners

E. Chirino et al. (2009) Ecological Restoration in Degraded Drylands: The Need to Improve the Seedling Quality and Site Conditions in the Field in S.P. Grossberg (ed.) Forest Management. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

http://imem.ua.es/en/documentos/imem-files/research-articles/jordi-cortina/chirino-et-al-2009-book.pdf

Bases Ecológicas para la Restauración de los Espartales Semiáridos Degradados

En este estudio se analiza la interacción entre S. tenacissima y distintas especies leñosas mediterráneas introducidas mediante plantación y siembra, con el fin de evaluar el potencial de la facilitación como herramienta para la restauración ecológica de los espartales. Esta interacción es la suma de efectos positivos (mejora en las condiciones microclimáticas y edáficas y captación de agua de escorrentía) y negativos (competencia subterránea por el agua), siendo la mejora del microclima en los alrededores de S. tenacissima el principal mecanismo responsable de la facilitación observada en las especies introducidas. Los efectos positivos aumentan conforme lo hacen las condiciones climáticas adversas en un gradiente espacio-temporal de estrés hídrico. Estos resultados indican que la facilitación puede contribuir a optimizar la restauración de los espartales degradados.

Practitioners

Maestre, F. T., S. Bautista, J. Cortina, C. Bladé, J. Bellot and V.R. Vallejo (2003) Bases ecológicas para la restauración de los espartales semiáridos degradados. Ecosistemas 2003/1.

http://revistaecosistemas.net/pdfs/246.pdf

Ecología del Esparto (Stipatenacissima L.) y los Espartales de la Península Ibérica

Ecología del esparto (Stipatenacissima L.) y los espartales de la Península Ibérica. Las formaciones vegetales dominados por el esparto o atocha (Stipatenacissima L.) constituyen uno de los ecosistemas más representativos de las zonas semiáridas de la Península Ibérica y del norte de África. Estas formaciones han estado íntimamente ligadas a la actividad humana desde hace no menos de 4.000 años. Los espartales son formaciones vegetales abiertas, muy heterogéneas en su composición y estructura. La funcionalidad de los espartales está muy relacionada con la disposición espacial de las matas, así como con la cobertura de arbustos rebrotadores. El esparto es una especie anemócora capaz de reproducirse sexual y asexualmente, mostrando vecería en la producción de flores y semillas. Presenta una serie de adaptaciones morfoestructurales y fisiológicas que le han permitido colonizar con éxito los adversos ambientes semiáridos mediterráneos. El suelo que se encuentra bajo las matas de esparto muestra un a mayor fertilidad y mejores condiciones microclimáticas que el suelo adyacente, originando la formación de "islas de recursos". Por ello, las matas de esparto alteren la distribución y desarrollo de un gran número de organismos, como plantas vasculares, musgos y líquenes. Los avances en nuestro conocimiento sobre la composición y funcionamiento de los espartales están siendo utilizandos para mejorar su gestión.

Practioners, implementing agencies

Maestre, F.T., D.A. Ramírez and J. Cortina (2007) Ecología del Esparto (Stipatenacissima L.) y los Espartales de la Península Ibérica. Ecosistemas 16(2): 111-130.

http://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/7674/1/ECO_16%282%29_12.pdf

The Restoration of Vegetation Cover in the Semi-Arid Iberian Southeast

Here, we review recent advances in the restoration of semiarid vegetation cover in the Iberian southeast, discuss future challenges and suggest two key steps towards increasing the consistency and efficiency of restoration programs: emphasis on ecosystem services, and implementation of participative and adaptive management practices.

Implementing agencies, practitioners, policymakers

Cortina, J., B. Amat, V. Castillo, D. Fuentes, F.T. Maestre, F.M. Padilla and L. Rojo (2011) The Restoration of Vegetation Cover in the Semi-Arid Iberian Southeast. Journal of Arid Environments 75: 1377-1384.

http://www.escet.urjc.es/biodiversos/publica/Cortina_et_al_2011_J_Arid_Environ.pdf

Linking the Spatial Patterns of Organisms and Abiotic Factors to Ecosystem Function and Management: Insights from Semi-arid Environments

Numerous theoretical and modeling studies have demonstrated the ecological significance of the spatial patterning of organisms on ecosystem functioning and dynamics. However, there is a paucity of empirical evidence that quantitatively shows how changes in the spatial patterns of the organisms forming biotic communities are directly related to ecosystem structure and functioning. In this article, I review a series of experiments and observational studies conducted in semi-arid environments from Spain (degraded calcareous shrubland, steppes dominated by Stipatenacissima, and gypsum shrublands) to: 1) evaluate whether the spatial patterns of the dominant biotic elements in the community are linked to ecosystem structure and functioning, and 2) test if these patterns, and those of abiotic factors, can be used to improve ecosystem restoration.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Maestre, F.T. (2006) Linking the spatial patterns of organisms and abiotic factors to ecosystem function and management: Insights from semi-arid environments. Web Ecol. 6: 75–87.

http://www.web-ecol.net/6/75/2006/we-6-75-2006.pdf

Drylands>Soils

Microbial Populations of Arid Lands and their Potential for Restoration of Deserts

The rapid expansion of deserts in recent decades as a result of human actions combined with climatic disasters has highlighted the necessity to understand biological processes in arid environments. Whereas physical processes and the biology of flora and fauna have been relatively well studied in marginally used arid areas, knowledge of desert soil micro-organisms remains fragmentary. This chapter describes several biological phenomena in hot deserts related to microbial populations and the potential use of micro-organisms for restoring hot desert environments. A few relevant examples from colder deserts are also provided.

Practitioners

Bashan, Y. and L.E. de Bashan (2010) Microbial Populations of Arid Lands and their Potential for Restoration of Deserts in P. Dion (ed.) Soil Biology and Agriculture in the Tropics, Soil Biology 21.

www.bashanfoundation.org/gmaweb/pdfs/soilmicrobiology.pdf

Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation in Theory and Practice: An Underexploited Opportunity

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are ubiquitous lichen-bryophyte microbial communities, which are critical structural and functional components of many ecosystems. However, BSCs are rarely addressed in the restoration literature. The purposes of this review were to examine the ecological roles BSCs play in succession models, the backbone of restoration theory, and to discuss the practical aspects of rehabilitating BSCs to disturbed ecosystems. Most evidence indicates that BSCs facilitate succession to later seres, suggesting that assisted recovery of BSCs could speed up succession. The strong influence that BSCs exert on ecosystems is an underexploited opportunity for restorationists to return disturbed ecosystems to a desirable trajectory.

Practitioners

Bowker, M.A. (2007) Biological Soil Crust Rehabilitation in Theory and Practice: An Underexploited Opportunity. Restoration Ecology 15(1): 13-23.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2006.00185.x/abstract

Untangling the Biological Contributions to Soil Stability in Semiarid Shrublands

Communities of plants, biological soil crusts (BSCs), and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are known to influence soil stability individually, but their relative contributions, interactions, and combined effects are not well understood, particularly in arid and semiarid ecosystems. In a landscape-scale field study we quantified plant, BSC, and AM fungal communities at 216 locations along a gradient of soil stability levels in southern Utah, USA.

Practitioners

Bala Chaudhary, V. et al. (2009) Untangling the Biological Contributions to Soil Stability in Semiarid Shrublands. Ecological Applications 19(1): 110-122.

http://archive.li.suu.edu/docs/ms130/AR/chaudhary.pdf

Integrating Soil Ecological Knowledge into Restoration Management

Here, we propose that the usefulness of this soil ecological knowledge (SEK) for restoration is best considered in the context of the severity of the original perturbation, the goals of the project, and the resilience of the ecosystem to disturbance. A straightforward manipulation of single physical, chemical, or biological components of the soil system can be useful in the restoration of a site, especially when the restoration goal is loosely defined in terms of the species and processes that management seeks to achieve. We provide a short roster of examples to illustrate that SEK benefits management and restoration of ecosystems and suggest areas for future research.

Practitioners

Heneghan, L. et al. (2008) Integrating Soil Ecological Knowledge into Restoration Management. Restoration Ecology 16(1): 608-617.

http://ddr.nal.usda.gov/bitstream/10113/27809/1/IND44130784.pdf

The Importance of Phytogenic Mounds (Nebkhas) for Restoration of Arid Degraded Rangelands in Northern Sinai

Natural accumulation of wind-borne sediments within or around the canopies of plants plays an important role in the ecological and evolutionary dynamics of many coastal and desert ecosystems. The formation of such phytogenic mounds (nebkhas) creates patches that can strongly influence the spatial distribution of plant and soil resources. In land restoration of arid and semiarid environments it is important to study the potential role of such biological patchiness that may provide sites for coexistence of species with different life and growth forms. Our main objective was to test whether the nebkhas of a leguminous shrub, Retama raetam (white broom), promote restoration of herbaceous vegetation and soil in the degraded rangelands of northern Sinai.

Practitioners

El-Bana, M.I., I. Nijs and A.H.A. Khedr (2003) The Importance of Phytogenic Mounds (Nebkhas) for Restoration of Arid Degraded Rangelands in Northern Sinai. Restoration Ecology 11(3): 317-324.

http://colleges.ksu.edu.sa/Papers/Papers/Restoration-Ecology.pdf

Forests/Woodlands
The Restorative Imperative: Assessing Objectives, Approaches and Challenges to Restoring Naturalness in Forests
The inherent challenges in restoring “naturalness” include high temporal and spatial heterogeneity in forest conditions and natural disturbances, the long history of human influence on forests in many regions of the world, and uncertainty about future climate and disturbance regimes. Although fixed templates may be inappropriate, we still have a reasonably clear idea of the incremental steps required to make forests more natural. Because most locations can support many alternative configurations of natural vegetation, the restoration of forest naturalness necessarily involves the setting of priorities and strategic directions in the context of human values and objectives, as informed by our best understanding of ecosystem structure and function now and in the future.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Burton, P.J. and S.E. Macdonald (2011) The restorative imperative: assessing objectives, approaches and challenges to restoring naturalness in forests. Silva Fennica 45(5): 843–863.

http://www.metla.fi/silvafennica/full/sf45/sf455843.pdf

Forest Management, Restoration, and Designer Ecosystems: Integrating Strategies for a Crowded Planet

As the global human population increases, the demand to conserve, restore, create, and sustainably manage ecosystems will increase as well. Forested ecosystems are of particular interest because of the biodiversity they support and their diverse values to people. Developments in conservation, restoration forestry, and in the study of designer ecosystems provide a diverse set of tools with which to pursue sustainable forestry goals. Nonetheless, we suggest that sustainable forestry can only be achieved by fully considering ecological, economic, and social needs in landscapes. This will require a clear realization of the trade-offs in site-specific management approaches and a multifaceted, landscape-scale perspective for evaluation of sustainability criteria. We propose collaborative creation of Sustainable Forestry Portfolios as a means to encourage the breadth of thinking required to guide sustainable forest management.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Sarr, D.A. and K.J. Puettmann (2008) Forest Management, Restoration, and Designer Ecosystems: Integrating Strategies for a Crowded Planet. Ecoscience 15(1): 17-26.

http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/fs/kpuettmann/ES%2015(1)%202008.pdf

Forest Restoration, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning

The BEF-approach provides a useful framework to evaluate forest restoration in an ecosystem functioning context, but it also highlights that much remains to be understood, especially regarding the relation between forest functioning on the one side and genetic diversity and above-ground-below-ground species associations on the other. The strong emphasis of the BEF-approach on functional rather than taxonomic diversity may also be the beginning of a paradigm shift in restoration ecology, increasing the tolerance towards allochthonous species.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Aerts, R. and O. Honnay (2011) Forest Restoration, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning. BMC Ecology 11:29.

http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6785-11-29.pdf

Using Mechanistic Modeling within Forest Ecosystem Restoration

The purpose of this study is to enhance the ecophysiological representation of single tree species within an existing mechanistic model, a pre-condition for assessing forest ecosystem restoration scenarios. We changed ecophysiological constants using published literature related to Norway spruce and common beech for a wide range of central European forests and evaluated model predictions using observations on stand transpiration, seasonal water balance, leaf area index, photoassimilation, tree volume, tree ring size, and soil and litter carbon and nitrogen content. A model validation, using an independent data set on tree volume, soil carbon and nitrogen content from a total 44 spruce and beech stands across the northern part of the Austrian Alps, exhibited no bias between model predictions and field observations.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Pietsch, S.A. and H. Hasenauer (2002) Using Mechanistic Modeling within Forest Ecosystem Restoration. Forest Ecology and Management 159(1-2): 111-131.

http://www.aseanbiodiversity.info/Abstract/51003457.pdf

Perceptions, Not Facts: How Forestry Professionals Decide on the Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems

Based on the theory of social constructivism and the model of symbolic interactionism, this paper shows that a person’s readiness to implement restoration measures, inter alia, depends on the urgency of the problem. However, it does not (only) hinge on the ‘objective’ degree of damage, but (also) on the subjective problem perception of the decision maker. The empirical survey indicates, furthermore, that these subjective perceptions are—among other things—determined by social interactions. On the basis of these findings, we can derive a number of practical recommendations not just for science and research scientists, but especially for persons and institutions working in (further) education and in the field of extension services.

Implementing agencies, practitioners

Pregernig, M. (2002) Perceptions, Not Facts: How Forestry Professionals Decide on the Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 45(1): 25-38.

http://www.boku.ac.at/sfh/Documents/Preg/Perceptions.pdf

Sustainable Forest Management, Biodiversity and Livelihoods: A Good Practice Guide

This booklet is part of a series of Good Practice Guides produced by the CBD. It provides a range of case studies and other materials to make the forest sector more biodiversity-friendly, and socially beneficial. It addresses the linkages between forestry, biodiversity, and development / poverty reduction. The summaries and examples included in this booklet show how biodiversity and sustainable economic development can go hand in hand. The primary target audiences for the guide are government officers and decision-makers in the various government agencies related to forestry (at global, regional, national and local levels), as well as development practitioners. The materials presented can also be useful to corporate and NGO planners.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2009) Sustainable Forest Management, Biodiversity and Livelihoods: A Good Practice Guide. Montreal.

http://www.cbd.int/development/doc/cbd-good-practice-guide-forestry-booklet-web-en.pdf

Assessing Forest Degradation: Towards the Development of Globally Applicable Guidelines

This document pulls together a range of views and approaches to the assessment of forest degradation. It should be regarded as precursor to the development of comprehensive, globally applicable guidelines for assessing forest degradation. There is much work yet to be done on this important topic – we trust the present paper contributes to the goal of reducing and mitigating the inevitable processes of forest degradation.

Policymakers, implementing agencies, indigenous and local communities

FAO (2011) Assessing Forest Degradation: Towards the Development of Globally Applicable Guidelines. Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper 177.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2479e/i2479e00.pdf

Forests/Woodlands>Chile
Restauración Ecológica para Ecosistemas Nativos Afectados por Incendios Forestales

En esta obra se presentan los resultados de dos años de trabajo desarrollado por seis investigadores de la DC en el tema de la restauración ecológica de los ecosistemas vegetales nativos afectados por incendios forestales en Chile. El trabajo realizado incluye una exhaustiva revisión bibliográfica de las principales publicaciones relacionadas con el tema, la exploración de las iniciativas llevadas a cabo en Chile en el ámbito de la restauración ecológica y la integración de la información aportada por diversos especialistas y las campañas de terreno destinadas a evaluar los principales factores ecológicos involucrados en la regeneración de los ecosistemas afectados por incendios.

Implementing agencies, practitioners

Fernández, I., N. Morales, L. Olivares, J. Salvatierra, M. Gomez and G. Montenegro (2010) Restauración Ecológica para Ecosistemas Nativos Afectados por Incendios Forestales. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Corporación Nacional Forestal.

http://www.ecomabi.cl/noticias/93-libro-restauraci%C3%B3n-ecol%C3%B3gica-para-ecosistemas-nativos-afectados-por-incendios-forestales.html

Forests/Woodlands>China
Learning Lessons from China’s Forest Rehabilitation Efforts: National Level Review and Special Focus on Guangdong Province

What has been the nature of these rehabilitation efforts and their outcomes? Did they meet or are they likely to meet their environmental, economic and social objectives? What are the constraints faced? It is imperative that China succeeds in its rehabilitation efforts in order to meet its growing demand for timber and environmental services. Failure on this front will not only affect China but also have global impacts due to continued imports of raw material (often unsustainablyor illegally sourced) and environmental degradation elsewhere. Additionally, could forest rehabilitation and management contribute to China’s western region development plan and help alleviate poverty in that region as proposed?

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Chokkalingam, U., Z. Zaizhi, W. Chunfeng and T. Toma (2007) Learning lessons from China’s forest rehabilitation efforts: National level review and special focus on Guangdong Province. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).

http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BChokkalingam0603.pdf

Forests/Woodlands>Europe
The Political Practice of Mountain Forest Restoration: Comparing Restoration Concepts in Four European Countries

This paper compares the Alpine countries of Switzerland, Bavaria (Germany), Austria and Slovenia, and investigates how institutions influence the development and application of mountain forest restoration concepts. In practice, different restoration approaches have been developed in these countries depending on the distribution of forest ownership and the administrative arrangements. According to the different institutional settings, different actors are involved in the policy networks. With their different interests and value systems, these actors determine the goals, the design and the outcome of restoration programmes. Policy change might become effective by including new participants in the network. As the need for restoration is often caused by unsustainable forest management, the change of institutional arrangements is crucial to facilitate advanced management systems, which aim at avoiding degradation in the future.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Weiss, G. (2006) The Political Practice of Mountain Forest Restoration: Comparing Restoration Concepts in Four European Countries. Forest Ecology and Management 195(1-2): 1-13.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112704002002