1. Introduction Ecosystem-Specific Tools and Technologies Coastal/Marine

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Dry>Mexico
Direct Seeding to Restore Tropical Mature-Forest Species in Areas of Slash-and-Burn Agriculture

After tropical lands have been abandoned from anthropogenic pressures, often forest structure and some species recover naturally. Studies suggest, however, that mature-forest species are frequently slow to establish and an active management strategy may be necessary. We tested direct seeding of mature-forest species as a restoration strategy in sites previously used for slash-and-burn agriculture in semi-evergreen, seasonal forest in the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, and evaluated when in the successional process this strategy had the highest success rate.

Implementing agencies, practitioners, indigenous and local communities

Bonilla-Moheno, M. and K.D. Holl (2010) Direct Seeding to Restore Tropical Mature-Forest Species in Areas of Slash-and-Burn Agriculture. Restoration Ecology 18(s2): 438-445.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2009.00580.x/full

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Dry>Tanzania
Restoring Woodlands, Sequestering Carbon and Benefiting Livelihoods in Shinyanga, Tanzania

The project relied on the rich local knowledge of the Sukuma people about their natural resources and ways of managing them. “Ngitili – or “enclosures” or “fodder reserves” in the local Sukuma language were traditionally used for conservation and restoration of range-lands and governed under customary law, are now the true driver for the astounding success of the forest restoration in the region.

Implementing agencies, policymakers, indigenous and local communities

Barrow, E. and A. Shah (2011) TEEBcase: Traditional forest restoration in Tanzania.

URL

How Agroforestry is Helping Farmers to Restore the Woodlands in Shinyanga Region
The HASHI project helped tens of thousands of smallholders to restore degraded land, and in doing so to significantly improve their incomes. One of the project’s great achievements was to revive a traditional system of land management which increases the supply of livestock fodder for use during the dry season. When the project began, there were just 600 ha of documented ngitili – enclosed fodder reserves – in the region. There are now thought to be over 500,000 ha of such reserves.

Implementing agencies, policymakers, indigenous and local communities

Pye-Smith, C. (2010) A Rural Revival in Tanzania: How agroforestry is helping farmers to restore the woodlands in Shinyanga Region. ICRAF Trees for Change no. 7. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre.

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFs/B16751.PDF

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Dry>Venzuela
Tropical Dry Forests in Venezuela: Assessing Status, Threats and Future Prospects
The main challenge to future dry forest conservation is a paucity of explicit policies for management and use. However, scientifically-based management can support positive dry forest policies in many ways, including identifying locations and protocols for ecological restoration, maintaining seed banks, quantifying baseline conditions, and monitoring genetic diversity and other indicators.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Rodríguez, J.P., J.M. Nassar, K.M. Rodríguez-Clark, I. Zager, C.A. Portillo-Quintero, F. Carrasquel and S. Zambrano (2008) Tropical Dry Forests in Venezuela: Assessing Status, Threats and Future Prospects. Environmental Conservation 35: 311-318.
http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=3751700
Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Moist
International Symposium on Rehabilitation of Tropical Rainforest Ecosystems 2011

Extended Abstracts

Universiti Putra Malaysia and Mitsubishi Corporation

http://www.forr2.upm.edu.my/frp/index.php/international-symposium/extended-abstract

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Moist>Africa
Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands in Humid Zones of Africa

This paper therefore aims at providing background information for discussion by identified scientists and other stakeholders in order to produce the synthesis. The background information include the importance of the forest resource, the causes of deforestation and degradation, the rates of deforestation and degradation, rehabilitation techniques and strategies, policy, management and research constraints against rehabilitation as well as policy, management and research recommendations. It also includes suggestions on issues that the discussions should be centered on.

Implementing agencies, practitioners, policymakers, indigenous and local communities

Blay, D. (2002) Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands in Humid Zones of Africa. A report Prepared for IUFRO, Global Forest Information Service (GFIS) Project.

http://www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/degradedlands/documents/bgphumid.PDF

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Moist>Australia
Rainforest Restoration Activities in Australia’s Tropics and Subtropics
This report describes the nature of efforts to restore rainforest cover to the eastern tropics and subtropics, where the largest rainforest areas were found. Since around 1990, a complex array of government-sponsored schemes has provided financial subsidies to encourage and assist restoration. A striking feature has been the high level of community involvement. Most projects targeted the banks of creeks and rivers, and were less than five hectares in area. Total areas reforested regionwide were modest (less than 1% of the area of past clearing). The unit cost of vegetation reinstatement was around AU$20,000 / ha, but costs of projects below 2.0 ha in area often greatly exceeded this. The value of such small-scale projects may be in community engagement, whereas good ecological outcomes are more likely with larger-scale projects.

Policymakers

Catterall, C. P. and D.A. Harrison (2006) Rainforest Restoration Activities in Australia’s Tropics and Subtropics. Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Rainforest Ecology and Management. Rainforest CRC, Cairns, Australia.

http://www.jcu.edu.au/rainforest/publications/restoration_activities_full.pdf

Restoring Rainforest Species by Direct Seeding: Tree Seedling Establishment and Growth Performance on Degraded Land in the Wet Tropics of Australia

Results indicate that direct seeding can be a viable establishment method, but the identity of species to be used, the circumstances under which they should be directly sown and the most appropriate timing of sowing will vary with situations. Species characteristics, including seed size, growth rate potential and light requirement will be important to consider in relation to the probable conditions that will develop for seedlings following germination (particularly in relation to plant competition) with or without post-sowing site management, such as removal of weeds.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Doust, S.J., P.D. Erskine and D. Lamb (2008) Restoring rainforest species by direct seeding: Tree seedling establishment and growth performance on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 256(5): 1178–1188.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112708005070

Monitoring Revegetation Projects in Rainforest Landscapes: Toolkit Version 3
This toolkit has been written to assist community groups and restoration practitioners record details of their revegetation projects, assess their condition and monitor their outcomes for biodiversity and carbon sequestration. Additionally, the methods presented here can also be applied to other situations where there is a need to monitor and evaluate change in forest ecosystems, including assessment of the extent of degradation or recovery within remnant forest.

Practitioners, indigenous and local communities

Kanowski, J., C.P. Catterall, K. Freebody, A.N.D. Freeman, and D.A.Harrison (2010) Monitoring Revegetation Projects in Rainforest Landscapes. Toolkit Version 3. Reef and Rainforest Research Centre Limited, Cairns.

http://www.rrrc.org.au/publications/biodiversity_monitoring3.html

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Moist>Borneo
Seeing the Fruit for the Trees in Borneo

The recent mass fruiting of forest trees in Borneo is an urgent wakeup call: existing policy instruments, financial mechanisms, and forestry infrastructure are inadequate to take full advantage of these infrequent opportunities for forest restoration and conservation. Tropical forest restoration can provide substantial benefits for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, and poverty alleviation. Yet the unpredictability of the synchronized flowering and consequent mass fruiting of many forest trees in Borneo presents a distinctive set of challenges for forest restoration. Significant financing and a considerable coordinated effort are required to prepare for future mass fruiting events if we are to capitalize on opportunities for ecological restoration.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Kettle, C.J. (2011) Seeing the Fruit for the Trees in Borneo. Conservation Letters 4(3): 184-191.

http://www.ecology.ethz.ch/publications/2011/Kettle_etal_2011_ConsLett.pdf

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Moist>Costa Rica
Understory Species Richness during Restoration of Wet Tropical Forest in Costa Rica

An effort to restore wet tropical forest in Costa Rica began in 1993 with plantings of native trees in abandoned pasture land. We compared understory plant species richness in three sites planted with a mix of native tree species with understory species in two monoculture plantations and in two secondary growth (unplanted) areas. Understory species in nearby primary forest remnants are also reported for comparison. We identified 356 understory species, ranging from 46 to 134 understory species per plot. Woody species were predominant (50–80%), as were plant species relying on animals for seed dispersal (60–80%). Our data indicate that substantial progress toward understory species richness can be obtained in the first decade of wet tropical forest restoration.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Leopold, A.C. and J. Salazar (2008) Understory Species Richness during Restoration of Wet Tropical Forest in Costa Rica. Ecological Restoration 26(1): 22-26.

http://er.uwpress.org/content/26/1/22.full.pdf

Direct Seeding of Late-Successional Trees to Restore Tropical Montane Forest

Natural regeneration of large-seeded, late-successional trees in fragmented tropical landscapes can be strongly limited by a lack of seed dispersal resulting in the need for more intensive restoration approaches, such as enrichment planting, to include these species in future forests. Direct seeding may be an alternative low-cost approach to planting nursery-raised tree seedlings, but there is minimal information on its efficacy or when in the successional process this technique will be most successful. We tested directly seeding five native tree species into habitats representing passive and active restoration approaches: (1) recently abandoned pasture; (2) naturally establishing, young secondary forests; and (3) young, mixed-species (fast-growing N-fixers and commercially valuable species) tree plantations established to facilitate montane forest recovery in southern Costa Rica.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Colea,R.J., K.D. Holl, C.L. Keene and R.A. Zahawi (2011) Direct Seeding of Late-Successional Trees to Restore Tropical Montane Forest. Forest Ecology and Management 261(10): 1590–1597.

http://people.ucsc.edu/~kholl/Cole%20et%20al%202010%20direct%20seeding.pdf

Attempting Restoration of Wet Tropical Forests in Costa Rica

This report describes progress in an effort to show that restoration of wet native forest can be stimulated by planting mixed stands of native hardwoods. On a private reserve of 145 ha of abandoned pastureland, mixed stands have been established, involving up to 41 native species in the period since 1993. Sunloving species are growing as much as 3.1 m/year in height, and have exceeded 10 cm dbh in 5 years. Mixed stands of indigenous species are proposed as an alternative to monocultures, providing a possible source of income for small farmers, stabilizing the soil and stimulating the restoration of biodiversity.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Leopold, A.C., R. Andrus, A. Finkeldey and D. Knowles (2001) Attempting Restoration of Wet Tropical Forests in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 142(1-3): 243-249.

http://www.aseanbiodiversity.info/Abstract/51003996.pdf

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Moist>India
Restoring Rainforest Fragments: Survival of Mixed-Native Species Seedlings under Contrasting Site Conditions in the Western Ghats, India
Historical fragmentation and a current annual deforestation rate of 1.2% in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot have resulted in a human-dominated landscape of plantations, agriculture, and developed areas, with embedded rainforest fragments that form biodiversity refuges and animal corridors. Retaining regenerating native species during weed clearing operations was crucial for rapid reestablishment of a first layer of canopy to shade out weeds and enhance survival of shade-tolerant rainforest seedlings.

Practitioners

Shankar Raman, T.R., D. Mudappa and V. Kapoor (2009) Restoring Rainforest Fragments: Survival of Mixed-Native Species Seedlings under Contrasting Site Conditions in the Western Ghats, India. Restoration Ecology 17(1): 137-147.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00367.x/full

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Moist>Southeast Asia
Research for Restoring Tropical Forest Ecosystems: A Practical Guide
This book is a training manual, designed to enable staff at the proposed national FORRU’s in China, Laos and Cambodia, to develop the skills and knowledge needed for research programs to restore the unique forest ecosystems found in each country.

Practitioners

English, Chinese, Lao, Khmer and Thai

Forest Restoration Research Unit (2008) Research for Restoring Tropical Forest Ecosystems: A Practical Guide. Biology Department, Science Faculty, Chiang Mai University, Thailand.

http://www.forru.org/FORRUEng_Website/Pages/engpublications.htm

Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems in Southeast Asia

The project Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems in the Southeast Asian Tropical Region was a flagship ASEAN project supported by the Republic of Korea (ROK). AKECOP accumulated significant knowledge and sufficient experience through its cordial and firm partnership among key ASEAN and ROK forest research organizations during Phase 1 (1 July 2000 to 30 June 2005), Phase 2 (1 July 2005 to 30 June 2008) and will continue to do so in Phase 3 (1 July 2008 to 30 June 2011). Its research findings have led to an effective and efficient restoration of degraded tropical forests in ASEAN member countries.

Implementing agencies

Bae, K., D. Koo Lee and S. Young Woo (eds.) (2005) Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems in Southeast Asia. ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Project.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1734e/i1734e01.pdf

Rehabilitation of Degraded Forests in Thailand: Policy and Practice

This paper focuses on the significant issues affecting both the policy and practice of forest rehabilitation. Given that the large number of people whose livelihood depends on the forests for subsistence and other purposes normally has been excluded from the decision-making process in forest management, most important among these issues are the integration of the socio-economic and environmental needs into rehabilitation initiatives together with the active participation of local communities in the rehabilitation program. Case studies of reforestation and rehabilitation initiatives are also discussed.

Policymakers, implementing agencies, practitioners, indigenous and local communities

Sharp, A. and N. Nakagoshi (2006) Rehabilitation of Degraded Forests in Thailand: Policy and Practice. International Consortium of Landscape and Ecological Engineering.

http://www.aseanbiodiversity.info/Abstract/53005328.pdf

Forests/Woodlands>Tropical>Moist>Sri Lanka
Restoration Pathways for Rain Forest in Southwest Sri Lanka: A Review of Concepts and Models
Restoration pathways are suggested that range from: (i) the simple prevention of disturbance to promote release of rain forest succession; (ii) site-specific enrichment planting protocols for canopy trees; (iii) sequential amelioration of arrested fern and grasslands by use of plantation analogs of old field pine to facilitate secondary succession of rain forest, and plantings of late-seral rain forest tree species; and (iv) establishment and release of successionally compatible mixed-species plantations. We summarize with a synthesis of the restoration techniques proposed for reforestation using native vegetation on cleared conservation areas and parks, and for the stabilization of eroded upland watersheds. We conclude with a comparative analysis with restoration work done in other tropical forest regions.

Implementing agencies, practitioners, policymakers

Ashton, M.S., C.V.S Gunatilleke, B.M.P Singhakumara and I.A.U.N Gunatilleke (2001) Restoration Pathways for Rain Forest in Southwest Sri Lanka: A Review of Concepts and Models. Forest Ecology and Management 154(3): 409–430.

http://www.aseanbiodiversity.info/Abstract/51003445.pdf

Grasslands/Savannas

Grasslands/Savannas>Africa

An Approach to Tree Thinning to Structure Southern African Savannas for Long-term Restoration from Bush Encroachment

This paper is an attempt to summarize existing knowledge on the importance of woody plants in savanna and explore measures, based on ecosystem dynamics, which can be utilized to restore encroached areas more successfully. It is hypothesized that a more stable environment can be created by maintaining or restoring savanna structure (large trees). In a structured savanna, large trees are able to suppress the establishment of new seedlings, while maintaining the other benefits of woody plants like soil enrichment and the provision of food to browsing herbivore species. Effective restoration of encroached areas should not be considered a once-off event, but rather a long-term commitment.

Practitioners, implementing agencies, indigenous and local communities

Smit, G.N. (2004) An Approach to Tree Thinning to Structure Southern African Savannas for Long-term Restoration from Bush Encroachment. Journal of Environmental Management 71 (2): 179-191.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479704000477

Agroecological Restoration of Savanna Ecosystems

Results of experiments which demonstrate that nutrient deficiency in the Sahel savanna is a more serious problem than low rainfall and that nitrogen and phosphorus are the limiting nutrients in many savanna ecosystems are reviewed. The roles played by trees in the savanna such as provision of shade, preservation of water, reduction of susceptibility to erosion and nutrient pump are highlighted and species whose cultivation must be intensified so as to promote sustainability in savanna ecosystems are listed. The principles of agroecological restoration of savanna ecosystems whose focus is on the restoration of ecological balance and which has been successfully practiced in Ghana are highlighted.

Implementing agencies, practitioners, indigenous and local communities

Badejo, M.A. (1998) Agroecological Restoration of Savanna Ecosystems. Ecological Engineering 10(2): 209-219.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857498000123

Grasslands/Savannas>Europe

Grassland Restoration to Conserve Landscape-level Biodiversity: A Synthesis of Early Results from a Large-Scale Project

Grassland restoration was generally successful in accelerating secondary succession towards alkali steppes and loess grasslands. However, further management is necessary to counter the homogenizing effects of litter accumulation, to reduce perennial weeds and to enhance the colonization of target species. Our project provides useful practical insights into grassland restoration and in applying restoration at a number of sites within a larger area to conserve biodiversity at the landscape scale.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Lengyel, S. et al. (2012) Grassland Restoration to Conserve Landscape-level Biodiversity: A Synthesis of Early Results from a Large-Scale Project. Applied Vegetation Science (2012).

http://ecology.science.unideb.hu/ConsEcolGroup/Pdf/Lengyel%20et%20al%20%28EPuGrlRest_EarlySynth%29_online.pdf

Grassland Restoration on Former Croplands in Europe: An Assessment of Applicability of Techniques and Costs

Grasslands used to be vital landscape elements throughout Europe. Nowadays, the area of grasslands is dramatically reduced, especially in industrial countries. Grassland restoration is widely applied to increase the naturalness of the landscape and preserve biodiversity. We reviewed the most frequently used restoration techniques (spontaneous succession, sowing seed mixtures, transfer of plant material, topsoil removal and transfer)and techniques used to improve species richness (planting, grazing and mowing) to recover natural-like grasslands from ex-arable lands. We focus on the usefulness of methods in restoring biodiversity, their practical feasibility and costs.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Török, P., E. Vid, B. Deák, S. Lengyel and B. Tóthmérész (2011) Grassland Restoration on Former Croplands in Europe: An Assessment of Applicability of Techniques and Costs. Biodiversity and Conservation 20(11): 2311-2332.

http://ecology.science.unideb.hu/ConsEcolGroup/Pdf/Torok%20et%20al%202011%20%28GrasslRestMethods_Review%29.pdf

Facets of Grassland Restoration: Selected Papers from the International Field Seminar held at the Galichya Gora Nature Reserve (Russia)

This book is an offspring of “The Open Country,” a project started in 1999 with the Biodiversity Conservation Center that was intended to help develop an ongoing international forum on the problems of grassland conservation and restoration. The seminar was held from 16 to 22 June 2003, bringing together over 30 participants, including the reserve personnel and guests from 8 countries. During these days, each guest was asked to give a paper about her or his experiences in grassland restoration.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Struchkov, A. and J. Kuleshova (2005) Facets of Grassland Restoration: Selected Papers from the International Field Seminar held at the Galichya Gora Nature Reserve (Russia). Biodiversity Conservation Center, Moscow, Russia.

http://theopencountry.org/files/facets2005.pdf

LIFE and Europe’s Grasslands: Restoring a Forgotten Habitat

Grassland ecosystems hold an important part of Europe’s biodiversity. They offer ideal conditions for a vast diversity of habitats and species, are the source of a wide range of public goods and services, and also act as carbon ‘sinks’. Changes in agricultural practices and land use pressures mean that grasslands are disappearing at an alarming rate. This brochure highlights a selection of LIFE co-funded projects targeting grassland ecosystems within the Natura 2000 network.

Policymakers

Silva, J.P., J. Toland, W. Jones, J. Eldridge, E. Thorpe and E. O’Hara (2008) LIFE and Europe’s grasslands: Restoring a forgotten habitat. European Commission, Environment Directorate-General.

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/publications/lifepublications/lifefocus/documents/grassland.pdf