1. Introduction Ecosystem-Specific Tools and Technologies Coastal/Marine

Consideraciones Metodológicas para la Recuperación de Tierras Áridas Degradadas

Se entiende por restauración ecológica al conjunto de operaciones que “devuelven a un ecosistema a su situación prealterada”. En muchos casos la restauración de un ecosistema es bastante difícil al haber sido la degradación resultado de unos fenómenos climatológicos y biológicos únicos en intensidad, orden y duración, que han conducido a la desaparición de la base mínima necesaria para su restablecimiento. La dificultad para establecer especies vegetales en una superficie erosionada constituye un ejemplo de esta situación.

Implementing agencies, policymakers

Urbano, J. (2001) Consideraciones Metodológicas para la Recuperación de Tierras Áridas Degradadas. Observatorio Medioambiental 4: 49-89.

http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/OBMD/article/download/OBMD0101110049A/21799

Alternative Irrigation Systems for Arid Land Restoration

Establishing plants in deserts can be challenging even with supplemental irrigation. The low relative humidity, extreme temperatures, lack of consistent rainfall, tremendous rate of evaporation, and high wind speeds common in desert environments all play important and interrelated roles in water loss from desert soil and plants. These factors make it critical that restorationists use the most appropriate and cost-effective means to deliver water to the root zone of newly planted plants in order to maximize survival and growth. In this paper, I discuss the pros and cons of standard and alternative means of watering plants.

Practitioners

Bainbridge, D.A. (2002) Alternative Irrigation Systems for Arid Land Restoration. Ecological Restoration 20(1): 23-30.

http://www.gaiacollege.ca/course_content/Maintenance2/alternative_irrigation.pdf

Using Hydrogel and Clay to Improve the Water Status of Seedlings for Dryland Restoration

In dryland ecosystems, post-transplant water stress produces high seedling mortality after the first summer following outplanting. Our aim was to assess the effects of clay and hydrogel, both on the water holding capacity of the growing media and on various morphological and physiological characteristics of Quercussuber seedlings in the nursery and, subsequently, during the first 2 years in the field. Mixing hydrogel with a peat-based growing medium to form root plugs is a suitable technique for cultivating species to be planted in areas with a strong water deficit. This technique reduces post-transplant water stress in seedlings during their first months in the field and contributes to improve forest restoration methods in dryland ecosystems.

Practitioners

Chirino, E., A. Vilagrosa and V. R. Vallejo (2011) Using Hydrogel and Clay to Improve the Water Status of Seedlings for Dryland Restoration. Plant Soil 344(1-2): 99-110

http://avilagrosa.weebly.com/uploads/2/5/0/5/2505656/chirino_vilagrosa_vallejo_2011_ps_hydrogels_and_clays.pdf

The Role of Nurse Plants in the Restoration of Degraded Environments

Traditional ecological models have focused mainly on competition between plants, but recent research has shown that some plants benefit from closely associated neighbors, a phenomenon known as facilitation. There is increasing experimental evidence suggesting that facilitation has a place in mainstream ecological theory, but it also has a practical side when applied to the restoration of degraded environments, particularly drylands, alpine, or other limiting habitats. Where restoration fails because of harsh environmental conditions or intense herbivory, species that minimize these effects could be used to improve performance in nearby target species. Although there are few examples of the application of this “nursing” procedure worldwide, experimental data are promising, and show enhanced plant survival and growth in areas close to nurse plants. We discuss the potential for including nurse plants in restoration management procedures to improve the success rate of such projects.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Padilla, F.M. and F.I. Pugnaire (2006) The Role of Nurse Plants in the Restoration of Degraded Environments. Front Ecol Environ 4(4): 196–202.

http://www.ag.unr.edu/leger/Courses/Restoration_files/Padilla06_nurseplants.pdf

Drylands>Australia

Rehabilitation of Semiarid Landscapes in Australia. I. Restoring Productive Soil Patches

A rehabilitation procedure designed to reestablish resource control processes in a degraded Acacia aneura woodland was successful in improving soil nitrogen and carbon content, exchange properties, and water infiltration rates. Soil respiration rates and soil fauna populations increased, and soil temperatures were moderated. The procedure comprised laying piles of branches in patches on the contour of bare, gently sloping landscapes, with the expectation that soil, water, and litter would accumulate in these branch piles, thus improving the soil habitat and its productive potential. The procedure was derived from landscape function analysis, indicating that surface water flow was the principal means of resource transfer in these landscapes. Under degradation such overland flow results in a loss of resources. This rehabilitation procedure reversed loss processes, resulting in gains in the productive potential of soils within patches. This procedure was successful despite grazing pressure being maintained throughout the experiment.

Practitioners

Tongway, D. J. and J. A. Ludwig (1996) Rehabilitation of Semiarid Landscapes in Australia. I. Restoring Productive Soil Patches. Restoration Ecology 4(4): 388–397.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.1996.tb00191.x/abstract

Rehabilitation of Semiarid Landscapes in Australia. II. Restoring Vegetation Patches

This paper describes a practical technique, tested experimentally, for rehabilitating degraded semiarid landscapes in Australia. This rehabilitation technique is based on the ecological principle that semiarid landscapes are spatially organized as patchy, source-sink systems; this patchy organization functions to conserve limited water and nutrients within the system. The aim was to rebuild vegetation patchiness, lost through decades of utilization of these landscapes as rangelands. Patches were reconstructed from large tree branches and shrubs obtained locally and placed in elongated piles along contours. These piles of branches were very effective in recreating productive soil patches within the landscape, as described in part I of this study. These new patchy habitats promoted the establishment and growth of perennial grasses. Although the foliage cover of these grasses declined into a drought, which started before the end of the experiment, plant survivorship remained high. This suggests that patches also function as refugia for organisms during droughts. The patches of branches remained robust and functional, even under grazing impacts, although plant growth and survival were significantly higher within an ungrazed paddock than in a grazed paddock.

Practitioners

Tongway, D. J. and J. A. Ludwig (1996) Rehabilitation of Semiarid Landscapes in Australia. I. Restoring Productive Soil Patches. Restoration Ecology 4(4): 398-406.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.1996.tb00192.x/abstract

Drylands>China

New Restoration Engineering in Northeast Asia

The environmental conditions of desertifed areas differ from those where natural regeneration of shrubs and trees occurs, and the revegetation process can be acceletated by planting shrubs and trees. A variety of countermeasures including constructing sand barriers, planting trees and establishing appropriate stocking rates must be implemented under careful consideration of both local socio-economic demands and the degraded environmental condition. This article presents the results of some revegetation trials the author undertook in China and Mongolia. It describes how countermeasures to prevent sand drift and soil erosion are needed in accordance with varying site conditions.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Yoshikawa, K. (2010) New Restoration Engineering in Northeast Asia. Global Environmental Research 14: 37-46.

www.airies.or.jp/publication/ger/pdf/14_1-07.pdf

Drylands>Saudi Arabia

Forestland Degradation and Potential Rehabilitation in Southwest Saudi Arabia

Rehabilitation of the degraded forestland needs collaborative efforts and support from the different related governmental sectors as well as the locals. Protection, silvicultural practices, and sustainable management must be adopted as tools of rehabilitation.

Implementing agencies

El-Juhany, L.I. (2009) Forestland Degradation and Potential Rehabilitation in Southwest Saudi Arabia. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 3(3): 2677-2696.

http://www.insipub.com/ajbas/2009/2677-2696.pdf

Drylands>South Africa

Best Practice Guidelines for Minimising Impacts on the Flora of the Southern Namib

This booklet provides simple guidelines in a user-friendly format. It is the first practical guide for environmental management of the Succulent Karoo Biome, and the first of its kind in Namibia. It is my hope that many will read and implement these guidelines and so help make a positive contribution to the wise management and development of Namibia’s prime arid-zone biodiversity asset.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Burke, A. (2005) Best practice guidelines for minimising impacts on the flora of the southern Namib. EnviroScience and Namibia Nature Foundation, Windhoek.

http://www.cepf.net/Documents/bestpracticeguidelines.antjeburke.pdf

Practical Measures in Arid Land Restoration after Mining - A Review for the Southern Namib

The techniques available are discussed under the headings: (a) provision of suitable landform and substrate and (b) facilitating natural processes. Landscaping man-made landforms to match their surroundings, the provision of rough surfaces and small water catchments as well as applying fresh topsoil are the main aspects to be considered. Growth-impeding soil properties such as toxicity, and acidic, saline and sodic conditions will require treatment to ensure natural plant re-establishment is feasible or replanting areas is successful. Seeding and relocating native plants are feasible options to accelerate natural plant succession that merit further development in the southern Namib.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Burke, A. (2003) Practical Measures in Arid Land Restoration after Mining - A Review for the Southern Namib. South African Journal of Science 99(9-10): 413-417.

http://www.mendeley.com/research/practical-measures-in-arid-land-restoration-after-mining-a-review-for-the-southern-namib/

Determining Landscape Function and Ecosystem Dynamics: Contribution to Ecological Restoration in the Southern Namib Desert

With the long-term view to establish a research initiative focussing on restoration ecology in the southern Namib Desert, this article provides a review of current ecological knowledge and proposes potential research priorities. The aims of a research initiative would be two-fold. On the academic side, understanding processes operating at different scales will be critical to develop methods of ecological restoration suitable for southern Namib ecosystems. On the practical side, the development of appropriate methods will focus on facilitating ecological processes such as restoration of biologically active substrate, natural succession, and concentration of limited resources.

Burke, A. (2001) Determining Landscape Function and Ecosystem Dynamics: Contribution to Ecological Restoration in the Southern Namib Desert. Ambio 30(1): 29-36.

http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1579/0044-7447-30.1.29

Drylands>Sub-Saharan Africa

Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons Learned from Selected Case Studies

The GFIS Africa Synthesis initiative on “Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands in Sub-Saharan Africa” was therefore initiated in an effort to bring together African scientists working on tropical forests, woodlands and allied natural resources through networking to review and appraise existing information (both published and grey) and chart the way forward on sustainable management of the resources as a further contribution to the GFIS Africa project. Specifically, the synthesis has an emphasis on case studies in Sub-Saharan Africa in order to demonstrate what has already been done in the area of rehabilitation of degraded lands and to identify what are the gaps with respect to policy, management and research.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Blay, D., E. Bonkoungou, S.A.O. Chamshama and B. Chikamai (2004) Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons Learned from Selected Case Studies. FORNESSA and IUFRO-SPDC Synthesis Report.

http://www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/degradedlands/documents/synthesis_all.pdf

The Challenges of Rehabilitating Denuded Patches of a Semi-Arid Environment in Kenya

The aim of this study was to determine the main factors which contribute to failures in rehabilitating denuded patches in semi-arid lands of Kenya. A questionnaire was administered to capture farmer perceptions on failures on rangeland rehabilitation using grass reseeding technology. Rainfall data was collected during the study period. Moreover, rehabilitation trials using the three grasses were done under natural rainfall. Results from this study show that climatic factors mainly low amounts of rainfall to be the main contributor to rehabilitation failures.

Implementing agencies

Mganga, K.Z. et al. (2010) The Challenges of Rehabilitating Denuded Patches of a Semi-Arid Environment in Kenya. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 4(7): 430-436.

http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajest/article/viewFile/71291/60244

Restoration of Degraded Semi-Arid Communal Grazing Land Vegetation Using the Exclosure Model

Degradation of communal grazing land vegetation is a widespread problem throughout sub Saharan Africa and its restoration is a challenge for the management of many semi-arid areas. This study assessed the effectiveness of different age (young versus old) exclosures on species composition and diversity, biomass production and woody structure in northern Ethiopia. The species composition and diversity of herbaceous and woody plants was higher in the exclosures than in the grazed areas. The mean aboveground biomass measured inside the exclosures was more than twice that of the adjacent grazed areas and more biomass was produced from the young than the old exclosures. The study showed that degraded semi-arid vegetation is able to recover in a relatively short time when protected. Extended protection, however, reduces herbaceous species diversity and biomass. Therefore, it is suggested that a slight shift in management where exclosures protected for longer periods may be moderately used by livestock.

Indigenous and local communities, implementing agencies

Yayneshet, T. (2011) Restoration of Degraded Semi-Arid Communal Grazing Land Vegetation Using the Exclosure Model. International Journal of Water Resources and Arid Environments 1(5): 382-386.

http://www.psipw.org/attachments/article/306/IJWRAE_1%285%29382-386.pdf

Drylands>USA
Process-Based Management Approaches for Salt Desert Shrublands Dominated by Downy Brome

Downy brome grass (Bromustectorum L.) invasion has severely altered key ecological processes such as disturbance regimes, soil nutrient cycling, community assembly, and successional pathways in semiarid Great Basin salt desert shrublands. Restoring the structure and function of these severely altered ecosystems is extremely challenging; however new strategies are emerging that target and attempt to repair ecological processes associated with vegetation change. In this paper, we review the essential processes required to reduce downy brome abundance and assist with creating suitable conditions for revegetation of Great Basin salt desert shrublands.

Practitioners

Hirsch, M.C. and T. Monaco (2011) Process-Based Management Approaches for Salt Desert Shrublands Dominated by Downy Brome. Natural Resources and Environmental Issues 17/9.

http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1754&context=nrei

The Roles of Exotic Grasses and Forbs when Restoring Native Species to Highly Invaded Southern California Annual Grassland

A 3-year experiment in southern California coastal sage scrub (CSS) now dominated by exotic grasses was done to investigate the influence of both exotic grasses (mainly Bromus spp.) and exotic forbs (mainly Erodium spp.) on a restoration seeding (9 species, including grasses, forbs, and shrubs). Experimental plots were weeded to remove one, both, or neither group of exotic species and seeded at a high rate with a mix of native species. Abundance of all species varied with precipitation levels, but seeded species established best when both groups of exotic species were removed. The removal of exotic grasses resulted in an increase in exotic and native forb cover, while removal of exotic forbs led to an increase in exotic grass cover and, at least in one year, a decrease in native forb cover. Therefore, management of CSS and exotic grassland in southern California and similar areas must consider control of both exotic grasses and forbs when restoration is attempted.

Practitioners

Cox, R.D. and E.B. Allen (2011) The Roles of Exotic Grasses and Forbs when Restoring Native Species to Highly Invaded Southern California Annual Grassland. Plant Ecology 212(10): 1699-1707.

http://www.springerlink.com/content/v7h1303226668189/

A Spatial Model to Prioritize Sagebrush Landscapes in the Intermountain West for Restoration

We prioritized landscapes for restoring Sagebrush habitats within the intermountain western region of the United States using geographic information system (GIS) modeling techniques to identify areas meeting a set of conditions based on (1) optimum abiotic and biotic conditions favorable for revegetation of Sagebrush; (2) potential to increase connectivity of Sagebrush habitats in the landscape to benefit wildlife; (3) location of population strongholds for Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercusurophasianus, a species of conservation concern); and (4) potential impediments to successful restoration created by Cheatgrass (Bromustectorum, an invasive exotic annual grass). Our results represent an integral component in a hierarchical framework after which site-specific locations for treatments can be focused within high-priority areas. Using this approach, long-term restoration strategies can be implemented that combine local-scale treatments and objectives with large-scale ecological processes and priorities.

Implementing agencies, practitioners

Meinke, C.W., S.T. Knick and D. A. Pyke (2009) A Spatial Model to Prioritize Sagebrush Landscapes in the Intermountain West (U.S.A.) for Restoration. Restoration Ecology 17(5): 652-659.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00400.x/full

Drylands>Livelihoods

Dryland Opportunities: A New Paradigm for People, Ecosystems and Development

This Challenge Paper builds on the understanding that has emerged over the past decade about climate dynamics in drylands and the role of uncertainty, risk and resilience. It situates this debate in the context of rapid global change - of climate, economy and geopolitics. The Challenge Paper emphasises adaptive potentials, the value of dryland ecosystem services and the investment and marketing opportunities they offer, and the possibilities of strengthening the institutional environment for managing risk and rewarding resilience. It aims to apply the new scientific insights on complex dryland systems to practical options for development. A new dryland paradigm is built on the resources and capacities of dryland peoples, on new and emergent economic opportunities, on inward investment, and on the best support that dryland science can offer. The authors recommend five building blocks: strengthening the knowledge base; valuing and sustaining dryland ecosystem services; promoting public and private investment in drylands; improving access to profitable markets; and prioritising rights, reform, risk and resilience.

Policymakers

Mortimore, M. et al. (2009) Dryland Opportunities: A new paradigm for people, ecosystems and development, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; IIED, London, UK and UNDP/DDC, Nairobi, Kenya.

http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2009-033.pdf

Restoring Natural Capital in Arid and Semiarid Regions: Combining Ecosystem Health with Human Well-being

This document presents the major features of the ‘restoring natural capital’ (RNC) concept applied to arid and semiarid regions for the purposes of facilitating communication, information sharing and discussion. The goal is primarily: 1) to participate in promoting this approach to societies and communities most affected by degradation of the environments and resources they manage, and 2) to persuade governments and public and private assistance decision-makers to adopt this approach for their projects.

Policymakers

English, French

Lacombe, M. and J. Aronson (2009) Restoring natural capital in arid and semiarid regions combining ecosystem health with human wellbeing. Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD. N° 7.

http://www.csf-desertification.org/index.php/bibliotheque/publications-csfd/les-dossiers-du-csfd-english

The Economics of Desertification, Land Degradation, and Drought: Toward an Integrated Global Assessment

Although recognizing the differences among desertification, land degradation, and drought, this report conceptualizes the economic valuation of DLDD in terms of its association with the change in productivity and with changes in the provision of ecosystem services and the human benefits derived from them. Ecosystem services comprise provisioning (agricultural output, fuelwood, fresh water, and so on), supporting (such as soil formation, nutrient cycling), regulating (such as water and climate regulation), and cultural services.

Policymakers

Nkonya, E., N. Gerber, P. Baumgartner, J. von Braun, A. De Pinto, V. Graw, E. Kato, J. Kloos and T. Walter (2011) The Economics of Desertification, Land Degradation, and Drought: Toward an Integrated Global Assessment. ZEF-Discussion Papers on Development Policy No. 150.

http://www.unccd.int/knowledge/docs/EDLDD%20zef_dp_150.pdf

The Nature of Drylands: Diverse Ecosystems, Diverse Solutions

The aim of this booklet is to feature cutting edge work on drylands being undertaken by IUCN Members. However with over 1,000 Members and thousands of Commission experts, we could only skim the surface.

Implementing agencies, practitioners

Kamotho, S., W. Strahm and C. Wolfangel (eds.) (2008) The Nature of Drylands: Diverse Ecosystems, Diverse Solutions. IUCN, Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi, Kenya.

http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2008-023.pdf

Traditional Knowledge and Modern Technology for the Sustainable Management of Dryland Ecosystems

One of the main objectives of the workshop was to explore the extent of traditional methods as a complement to existing modern technologies to assist dryland biosphere reserves in the rehabilitation of degraded areas in their transitional and buffer zones. The workshop also aimed at finding solutions to desertification that could specifically be incorporated into National Action Programmes within the context of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification. The workshop had thus a scientific but also an anthropological component as well as a policy-oriented purpose. UNESCO is pleased to offer the various case studies contained in the workshop proceedings to the UNCCD for its important work on reducing dryland degradation and combating desertification.

Policymakers, implementing agencies, indigenous and local communities

Shaaf, T. (ed.) (2005) Traditional Knowledge and Modern Technology for the Sustainable Management of Dryland Ecosystems. UNESCO–MAB Drylands Series No. 4, Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Elista, Republic of Kalmykia, Russian Federation.

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001391/139182e.pdf