Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

Commission. 677/1/98, 1998.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Ref ID : 211

1719. Sampson, C.G. Veld damage in the Karoo caused by its pre-trekboer

inhabitants: preliminary observations in the Seacow valley. The Naturalist

30(1):37-42, 1986.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; ARCHAEOLOGY; NAMA KAROO

Notes : Also delivered as paper at First Annual Research meeting of the Karoo

Biome Project, Sneeuberg, 1985.

Abstract : Disruptions to the Karoo plant community caused by San (Bushman)

camps are still visible today. Evidently camping areas were routinely denuded,

and veld recovery was inhibited by periodic reoccupation. Episodic pressure on

favoured loci continued for several centuries. The archaeological residues of

these camps co-occur with patches of the classic botanical indicators of veld

damage, most obviously by Lycium sp. Surface erosion is common, and serious on

slopes. First estimates of San-derived veld damage in the upper Seacow valley

suggest that 0,28% of the total plant cover and 2% of the best (i.e. most

diverse) cover was already severely damaged before the arrival of European stock

farmers.

Ref ID : 213

1720. Sampson, C.G. Ostrich eggs and Bushman survival on the north-east frontier

of the Cape Colony, South Africa. Journal of Arid Environments 26:383-399, 1994.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : NAMA KAROO; ARCHAEOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY

Abstract : The large game herds of the Seacow River valley in the upper Karoo,

central South Africa were decimated by European settlers during the 19th

century. Formerly, these herds supported a relatively dense population of

Bushman hunter-gatherers whose material residues are found in local rock shelter

deposits. The European impact is registered in the final levels of each rock

shelter fill as a sharp decline in mammal bone density. In the same levels,

there are dense sheets of ostrich eggshell fragments, indicating that Bushmen

supplemented their dwindling meat supply by gathering eggs. Ostriches were more

resistant than other game to mounted hunters, to droughts and to overstocking by

sheep farmers. However, this adaptation was already under way before the

European onslaught, when grass cover and, by implication, rainfall and carrying

capacity fell drastically between 1600 and 1750.

Ref ID : 220

1721. Sampson, C.G. Spatial organization of LSA herders in the upper Karoo.

Proceedings of the 10th Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Related Studies.

Pwiti, G. and Soper, R.Anonymous Harare: 1995.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : ARCHAEOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; NAMA KAROO

Ref ID : 2486

1722. Sampson, C.G. Spatial organization of Later Stone Age herders in the upper

Karoo. In: Aspects of African Archaeology: papers from the 10th Congress of the

Pan African Association for Prehistory and Related Studies, edited by Pwiti, G.

and Soper, R.Harare:University of Zimbabwe Press, 1996,p. 317-326.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : ARCHAEOLOGY; CARRYING CAPACITY; LAND USE; CLIMATE; POPULATION; PLANT-

ANIMAL INTERACTIONS; GRAZING EFFECTS; BIODIVERSITY; SETTLEMENT IMPACTS

Notes : The authors conclude that altogether 123 prehistoric stone stock

enclosures (kraals) in the upper Seacow valley can be dated by their ceramic

associations to one of four phases. No kraal has a multi-phase occupation,

suggesting that individual kraals were used for relatively short periods and

were not re-occupied. The dung buildup in kraals, leading to tick infestations,

was a constant problem for the Dutch trekboers who periodically fired their

kraal accumulations to reduce the threat of vermin. Since calcinated and fused

(burned) dung is not a feature of the prehistoric kraals, the herders must have

coped with this hazard by moving frequently to new kraals and by avoiding old

ones. The orderly grouping of Phase 1 kraals into areas containing 3 - 5

contiguous waterholes, with lines of kraal-free waterholes between them,

suggests a system of grazing territories. Group size is remarkably like the

area of a modern sheep farm, a viable unit for supporting the flocks of an

extended family and its retainers. The prehistoric equivalent might be a clan-

size unit. Movement between some groups was more vigorous than between others,

as reflected in the distribution of chemically linked ceramics among and between

the groups. In Phases 2 and 3 the territorial system was sustained, but most

core areas were gradually shifted downstream, as they became overgrazed and lost

carrying capacity. By Phase 3, some upstream territories had been abandoned and

the previously unused east side of the upper valley came incraesingly into use.

Traffic between groups, again expressed in the distribution of chemically

related vessels, suggests a marked realignment, with growing cross-valley ties

across the northern end of the study area. The continuity of land use patterns

from Phase 1 to Phase 3 suggests a more or less continuous herder presence,

without prolonged breaks except perhaps at the beginning of Phase 2. Phase 4

reflects an apparently drought-induced breakdown of the system with a few

isolated residual kraals surviving for a short time only. The rapid decline in

grass pollen frequencies seen at this time cannot be ascribed specifically to

climate or to overgrazing. Kraals and livestock had disappeared by the time the

first Dutch trekboers arrived (Phase 5). Although the herders of all groups and

in all phases probably made daily grazing sorties to neighbouring waterholes

outside their core territories, it is likely that these were also the way

stations of mobile hunter-forager groups circulating on the same landscape. It

is mainly their residues that accumulated in rockshelters, particularly in the

under-grazed east flank of the upper valley. These shelter occupants acquired

ceramics and livestock, and learned to make their own ceramics. By Phase 4

times remains of these fibre-tempered vessels dominated the landscape,

suggesting that habitual forager, and perhaps some dispossessed herders, now

made up the upper valley's population.

Ref ID : 212

1723. Sampson, C.G. and Plug, I. Late Holocene and historical bone midden

density in rock shelters of the upper Seacow River valley. Southern African

Field Archaeology 2:59-66, 1993.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : MICROMAMMALS; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; ARCHAEOLOGY

Abstract : Many different taxa are represented in the faunal remains from upper

Karoo rock shelters. However, meaningful frequency changes in individual species

cannot be detected. An alternative approach is to measure changes in bulk faunal

mass per unit volume of deposit. When the faunal contents of nine shelter fills

were processed in this way it was found that at least two densely packed layers

of mammal remains occurred at the same levels in all shelters. The lower midden,

dating to ca 800 BP is usually the smaller of the two. It may be compressed with

an even earlier midden of ca 1100 BP in a few shelters. The uppermost midden is

better defined, with peak densities at ca 400 BP. As the three midden dates

coincide with marked increases in grass over scrub pollen in local hyrax dung

accumulations, and with small temperature fluctuations in the Cango speleothems

these events may reflect increased Bushman hunting activity during spells of

greater carrying capacity. Historical levels coincide with a sharp drop in

faunal density in all but one shelter.

Ref ID : 1952

1724. SARRCUS A system for classification of soil erosion in the SARRCUS

region.Anonymous Pretoria:Department of Agriculture and Fisheries. , 1981.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; EROSION

Ref ID : 1953

1725. Savat, J. Common and uncommon selectivity in the process of fuid

transportation: field observations and laboratory experiments on bare surfaces.

Catena supplement 1:139-160, 1982.

Reprint : Not in File,

Ref ID : 2255

1726. Savory, A. Holistic resource management, Washington DC:Island Press, 1988.

Reprint : In File,

Ref ID : 1359

1727. Scheepers, J.C. Conservation of major biotic communities in central and

Southern Africa. South Africa:SARCCUS, 1990.pp. v-21.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CONSERVATION; SOUTHERN AFRICA; POVERTY; POPULATION; AID; LAND USE

Notes : The conclusions reached by the author, relates to a questioning of where

the future lies. Where do individual member-countries stand with respect to

their national and international responsibilties especially in the context of

SARCCUS? It would seem that the conservation coverage of Major Vegetation Types

and Mosaics of Member-Countries is reasonably satisfactory with the notable

exception of SA, which is characterized by protected areas of very limited

individual extent. This fact heightens the urgency of the need to make adequate

provision for nature conservation before it is too late. For various reasons,

the problems encountered by SA in this regard are acute. In some ways the

problems in other Member-Countires may seem to be less acute although other

specific problems may be very real. Nevertheless, it can be predicted that the

difficulties encounterd by Member-Counties in setting aside more conservation

areas will become increasingly severe in future. In this sense, SA might be

seen to be a microcosm of the SARCCUS Region in terms of possibile future

scenarios. Future scenarios are always uncertain and possibly nowhere more so

than in Southern Africa where a variety of forces are delicately posed to shift

the situation one way or the other for good or ill. At this crucial stage, one

can but hope for movement in the direction of peace within countries and

peaceful co-existence and co-operation between them. Under such conditions, one

may hope for increasing prosperity amongst inhabitants of the subontinent,

without which the trend to increasing unemployment, poverty and population

growth on the land cannot be reversed. What indications do we have of the

future that are likely to influence our thinking and planning in this decade?

The increasing concern that the planet is becoming progressively uninhabitable

as a result of man's activities has raised environmental consciousness to the

point of being one of the main matters for future planning and management action

by governments worldwide. Governments and communities ignoring this development

will pay a high price that will not only be limited to local environmental

degradation but will have international as well as national repercussions. If

African countries have relied on substantial foreign aid in the past few

decades, there are signs that indicate that the next decade will demand greater

self-sufficiency of these countries. African countries will be compelled to

develop their economies with particular emphasis on their agriculture and

management of natural resources without foreign funding that was formerly

readily available. This will have far-reaching consequences for the governments

of these countries. The making available of expertise and skilled manpower, as

well as appropriate technology, to neighbouring countries in the subcontinent

for mutual benefit holds distinct promise for the future. Indeed, the future

development and prosperity of the subcontinent will depend heavily on our

abilities to co-operate effectively on all fronts for the common good. If we do

not succeed in this co-operative venture, our irreplaceable natural heritage and

our future generations will be losers. It is the author's fervent hope that the

1990s will see the dawning of a new era of peace, prosperity, and enhanced

concern and care of the natural environments of the SARCCUS-Region so that the

options for rational land-use planning will not diminish.

Ref ID : 1320

1728. Scheepers, J.C. Conservation of major biotic communities in central and

Southern Africa.Anonymous Anonymous SARCCUS. :1-21, 1990. 0 94 9986 27 5.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CONSERVATION; SOUTHERN AFRICA

Ref ID : 1954

1729. Schieber, M. Bodenerosion in Sudafrika.Justus Liebig Universitat, Giessen.

, 1983.

Reprint : Not in File,

Notes : Giessener geographische schriften, Heft 51.

Ref ID : 1955

1730. Schoeman, J., Koch, F., Kaempffer, L., and Scotney, D. Wind erosion

sensitive areas in South Africa. 199.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : WIND EROSION; EROSION

Notes : Undated memo.

Ref ID : 929

1731. Schoeman, J.L. and Scotney, D.M. Agricultural potential as determined by

soil, terrain and climate. South African Journal of Science 83:260-268, 1987.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : PRODUCTION POTENTIAL; MODELS; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; CLIMATE;

EROSION; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; LAND USE

Abstract : An overall picture of the natural resources determining agricultural

potential is being provided by the land-type survey, a country-wide inventory on

1:250 000 scale of soils, terrain form and climate. Information provided by

this survey makes possible the definition and estimation of areas of the

important soil, slope and climate classes that are found in SA. Yield

estimates, production technique data and interpretations such as erosion hazard

assessments can be coupled to these classes in information storage-retrieval

systems. Examples are given of studies that include preliminary land-type data

for the assessment of crop production potential and erosion hazard at various

levels. Previous estimates of 12 - 15% arable land available in the RSA, of

which 3 - 5% can be regarded as high potential, are confirmed. Once completed,

the land-type survey will provide an appropriate basis for the development of a

national agricultural production strategy.

Ref ID : 562

1732. Scholes, R.J. The use of non-arable land in South Africa: processes,

problems and possibilities.Anonymous Anonymous Johannesburg:Land and Agriculture

Policy Centre. (16), 1995.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; POLICY; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL

Ref ID : 247

1733. Scholes, R.J. Savanna. In: Vegetation of Southern Africa. edited by

Cowling, R.M., Richardson, D.M., and Pierce, S.M.Cambridge:Cambridge University

Press, 1997,p. 258-277.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SAVANNA; BOTANICAL SURVEY; VEGETATION DYNAMICS; BUSH ENCROACHMENT;

RAINFALL; FIRE; CONSERVATION; CLIMATE

Notes : The author concludes that savannas are important in the southern African

context, owing to their extent, economic value and high non-plant diversity.

The ecological features of particular interest in savannas are the strong

coupling of the vegetation structure and function to sporadic driving variables

such as rainfall, fire and herbivory, and the inherent instability of the

competitive relationship between the two main vegetation components. There is a

wealth of information relating to the vegetation ecology of southern African

savanas, with some conspicuous deficiencies. In particular, the fundamental

biology of savanna plant species is poorly known: their reproductive biology,

life-history characteristics and environmental limits. The pressures of human

use in this biome will continue to focus research on production ecology in the

coming decades, but an increasing emphasis on conservation, rehabilitation and

possible climate change will require a more detailed understanding of processes

at the organism level.

Ref ID : 413

1734. Scholes, R.J. and Bailey, C.L. Can savannas help balance the South African

greenhouse gas budget? South African Journal of Science 92:60-62, 1996.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SAVANNA; CLIMATE CHANGE; FOREST; GLOBAL CHANGE

Notes : The South African Greenhouse Experiment on Savannas (SAGES), a study

initiated by the CSIR's Division of Forest Science and Technology (Forestek),

aims to answer the following questions: to what degree is primary production in

savannas enhanced by elevated atmospheric levels of CO2?; and what happens to

the CO2 taken up this way? The authors believe that the results of this study

will not only be relevant to South Africa's carbon budget, but will also have

international significance in terms of the quantification of the contribution of

these ecosystems to the consumption or production of global atmospheric CO2.

SAGES has therefore been recognised as a core project of Global Change in

Terrestrial Ecosystems section of the International Geosphere-Biosphere

Programme.

Ref ID : 1401

1735. Scholes, R.J., Berns, J., Opperman, J., Gandar, M.V., and Fig, D. Energy

and the environment in South Africa. Issues and policies towards the

millenium.Anonymous Pretoria:Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. ,

1993.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : ENERGY; POLICY; POLLUTION; DEFORESTATION; LABOUR

Notes : Two pages on the unsustainable harvesting of indigenous woodlands have

been photocopied. Four practical policy options which will probably be needed to

address the problem of energy shortage in SA are: (1) Place and value of

women's labour by creating rural employment opportunities; (2) Ensure that

alternative fuels and construction materials are available at a competitive

price; (3) Create social institutions which will ensure the success of multi-

purpose communal, state-owned and individually-owned woodlots; and (4) Reinforce

the existing traditional practices which promote woodland protection, such as

restrictions on cutting certain species or sizes of trees.

Ref ID : 891

1736. Scholes, R.J. and Walker, B.H. An African savanna: synthesis of the

Nylsvley study, Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SAVANNA; VEGETATION DYNAMICS

Ref ID : 1322

1737. Scholtz, C.F. Erosiebestryding op veeplase.Anonymous Anonymous

Elsenburg:Department of Agriculture and Water Supply. :1-31, 1989.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : EROSION; RAINFALL; WIND EROSION; FLOODS; IRRIGATION; CULTIVATION;

CONSERVATION; EROSION CONTROL

Notes : This paper deals with the Ladismith area in the Karoo, where erosion is

everywhere to be seen. The main forms of erosion include donga-, rainfall- and

wind erosion. Where dongas form, if the loose ground resulting from the

breakaway is constructively used for growing plant cover, stabilisation of the

donga walls usually takes place. Dongas are the visible symptoms of abuse of

soil. Forms of abuse which are dealt with here are: denuding of the veld due to

footpaths, animal drinking areas; unprotected and randomly created roadways;

mismanagement of flood plains and vleis; mismanagement of soil; and premature

grazing of burnt veld. Some of the results of erosion dealt with in this paper

are: fertile soil is lost; dams and/or irrigation canals are washed away; the

land becomes characterised by gulleys and dongas which demands greater financial

outlay for protection of animals and increases costs of cultivation; bordering

surfaces become dried out due to excessive draining; dongas sometimes undermine

roads, bridges and attempts to improve farming methods; aesthetically, visually

unpleasing dongas undermine the value of ground; and the grazing capacity of

farms is undermined. Clearly, prevention is needed. The following steps are

recommended: newly formed gulleys must be attended to before deeply formed

dongas; management of gulleys is expensive and judicious discrimination, between

those more reasonably dealt with than others, must be practised; stabilisation

of gulleys, or prevention, must take precedence over curative procedures;

conservation measures in catchment areas must take precedence, such as

terracing, flood control measures etc.; and the most effective form of erosion

control and prevention is to ensure good plant cover.

Ref ID : 1486

1738. Schonken, J.D. Dessication and how to measure it. South African Journal of

Science 21:131-148, 1924.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : DESSICATION; MODELS; MONITORING

Ref ID : 1684

1739. Schoonbee, H.J. Biological control of fennel-leaved pondweed, Potomogeton

pectinatus (Potamogetonaceae), in South Africa. Agriculture Ecosystems &

Environment 37(1-3):231-238, 1991.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : DESERTIFICATION CONTROL; BUSH ENCROACHMENT

Ref ID : 2215

1740. Schoonbee, H.J. The occurrence and accumulation of selected heavy metals

in fresh water ecosystems affected by mine and industrial polluted

effluent.Anonymous Water Research Commission. 312/1/96, 1996.

Reprint : Not in File,

Ref ID : 678

1741. Schroder, D.T. Factors influencing changes in farm size in South

Africa.University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. , 1979. Master of Science.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; SOCIOECONOMIC

ASPECTS; ECONOMIC ASPECTS; POLITICAL ASPECTS; LABOUR; POLICY; POPULATION;

MODELS; SUBSIDIES

Notes : Summary in file. In brief, the author states that the world-wide trend

in modern agriculture is that farms increase in size, whether measured in terms

of area or gross output. Agriculture in SA has become capital intensive to the

extent that farmers are now very dependent on external sources of finance. He

states that there are five different types of measurement in farm size: acreage;

labour units; value of total business inputs; gross sales; and output. Chapter

2 interprets the term 'price-cost squeeze', with its effect on farm income, farm

size and farm problems. Briefly, what farmers mean by the price-cost squeeze is

the price received for their products and the price they pay for their inputs.

The author believes that the introduction of a price policy which will increase

farm product prices is no permanent solution to the problem of farm income,

particularly where the problem arises from farming units being too small or

where production systems have not been adjusted optimally to local conditions.

He states that the fact that technological progress has made it possible for