38
that
the state of exception, which was meant to be a provisional measure, has
become a normal practice of government in the twentieth century.
147
Agamben traced the evolution of the state of exception at least in part to the views
of Carl Schmitt. The state of exception depends,
he argued, on a conception of
necessity, usually the survival of the state.
148
It stems, he concluded, from the
Roman law of
iustitium, where the suspension of law was legitimate during times of
necessity.
149
The state of exception is, therefore, the enhancement of the executive power to have
the force of law. The separation of powers no longer limits the executive branch.
Separation of powers is one of the key factors of a democratic federal state and when
it is compromised due to a state of exception, the situation is paradoxical, because
state
of exception, it is argued is created due to factors being either missing or
operating in a diminished form. Although there has never been any separation of
powers in the constitutional history of Pakistan, nevertheless, the executive has had
authority over the other two branches by dissolving one (i.e. the legislature) and
obtaining support from the other (i.e. the judiciary). In the case of a military coup,
the military dictator is
de-facto the executive branch. Agamben observes that the
continuous application of the state of exception will eventually lead to a (global) civil
war.
150
The relevance of this phenomenon to this thesis is that when a state of
exception is created in Pakistan, those in power try to pre-empt any potential civil
war, secession or outbreak by invoking necessity in a way which justifies premature
dissolution of government as demonstrated in Chapter 4.
Another key writer relevant to the discussion of state necessity is Stanley de Smith.
Although de Smith's version of necessity does not
correspond to the state of
exception mentioned by Schmitt and Agamben, the views of de Smith are important
as his ideas were relied on by the judiciary in Pakistan in the
Asma Jilani case
discussed at 4.3. De Smith also commented on CJ Munir's decision that there was
not a situation of necessity in 1955 in the
Maulvi Tamizuddin case, also discussed
at 4.3, which was the first time necessity was ever used to justify an act of
dissolution of the legislature in Pakistan. The act of dissolution of the constituent
147
ibid.
148
ibid 30.
149
ibid 41.
150
ibid 87.
39
assembly by the Governor General was not seen by
de Smith as an instance of
necessity, it was mainly related to self-interest as the Governor General objected to
the constitution the Assembly was about to pass.
151
De Smith observed that state necessity had been accepted by the Pakistani judiciary
as a legal justification for unconstitutional actions 'to fill a vacuum'.
152
He did not,
however set out any criteria to identify what unconstitutional actions are. Article 6
of the 1973 constitution lists unconstitutional acts and their punishments, but in
spite of their presence General Zia and General Musharraf were, as explained at
4.3, granted immunity from those repercussions.
153
De Smith believed necessity is an 'implied exception to the letter of the
constitution'.
154
Again he gives no rationale for,
or limitation of, the state of
exception (necessity). Nevertheless, de Smith is, it is argued, justified in asserting
that in order to carry out an action arising out of necessity, an implied exception
requires implied powers. In other words, and arguably, the constitution of Pakistan,
like that of the USA, also carries implied powers in the form of implied exceptions.
De Smith's position is contrary to that of Schmitt, who appeared to think that a
legal framework justifying an exception to itself could not exist.
Virk believes that it was not appropriate to justify any of the acts of dissolution that
have occurred in Pakistan on the basis of state necessity.
155
On the basis of the
argument set out above, however,
it is suggested that, on the contrary, some
element of justifiable reliance on the doctrine of necessity is identifiable in each of
the acts of dissolution. Those elements of necessity included, for example, in the
Nusrat Bhutto and
Musharraf cases discussed in 4.3, serious political crises leading
to a breakdown of the constitutional machinery and risk of dissension among the
armed forces threatening the integrity and sovereignty of the country respectively.
The final section of the literature review is about state structure, which is the basis
of the structural comparative analysis in Chapter 5.
151
Leslie Wolf-Phillips, 'Constitutional Legitimacy: A Study of the Doctrine of Necessity' (1979) 1(4)
Third World Quarterly 98.
152
ibid.
153
Zia and Musharraf were both cleared by the judiciary and their acts
justified in the name of
necessity.
154
Stanley A. De Smith,
Constitutional and Administrative Law (Penguin 1986) 80.
155
ibid Muhammad Virk, 'Doctrine of Necessity-Application in Pakistan- Cases of
Immense Importance - A Critical Review' (2012) International J. Soc. Sci. & Education 2(2).