Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

land for production resonate with the demand for land for agriculture. Many

people want garden plots which they can cultivate to provide food for home

consumption, and mostly it is women who want this land, while men are more

interested in livestock farming.The use of and interest in land for agriculture

is best understood in terms of a production continuum, where there is some - at

times considerable - movement between the different levels of production. This

mobility is determined by the coincidence of a range of changing factors,

including climatic conditions, government policies, the size and composition of

the household, and agricultural and non-agricultural employment opportunities.

When conditions combine favourably to create opportunities, there is a pull

towards more surplus and sustained market production. Conversely, drought, land

hunger and an adverse economic and policy environment push people into micro

agricultural activity or out of the sector altogether. This dynamic perspective

helps to locate a key regenerative source of new entrants into the commercial

sector and reveals the importance for many rural households of sustaining non-

commercial production. From a development perspective, what needs to be better

understood in the South African countryside is the 'moment of critical mass' -

the combination of conditions which push people into sustained commercial

production at the one end of the continuum or, at the other end, out of

agriculture altogether. The need for, interest in and use of land is socially

stratified. Among the poor, the land hungry and the landless, there are

differences which derive from their gendered historical, economic and physical

location. The greatest social cleavage, however, is between those who have land

(and other resources) and those who do not, although the needs and interests

within groups are also by no means homogeneous. The motive behind the corporate

sector is clearly profit. By contrast, the response of individual commercial

farmers is more mixed and have begun to respond in an accommodating and

innovative way although most still react to land related social pressures as a

threat to their enterprises which others must resolve. Traditional authorities

are more ambiguous and are interested in mobilising around the land needs of the

poor, since the poor are the source of amakhosi power in many parts of the

countryside. Sometimes, however, the interests of the poor are not consistent

with their own personal needs and interests which result in often confused

opportunistic social and political alliances and outcomes. The research focused

narrowly on institutions, concentraing on their capacity to facilitate land

reform. At all levels, institutional capacity is uneven and often weak.

Generally, it tends to be weighted in favour of sections of society who have

resources and who, for political and economic reasons, have been able to

organise themselves to command institutional attention. Not surprisingly, most

poor, landless men and especially women in rural areas have very low levels of

organisation and minimal institutional support. This problem poses an enormous

challenge to land reform. Aside from proactive state and state aided non-

governmental organisation support, urgent consideration needs to be given to

measures which can prevent not only the rural elite benefiting from land reform.

Realistically, a broadened and expanded agricultural sector is likely to

incorporate some rural people into sustained commercial activity, while also

providing oppportunities to relieve the household food needs of many more

through micro and occasional surplus agricultural opportunities. But the

settlement and livelihood needs of most rural dwellers would remain unresolved,

with negative implications for farming and for rural and urban stability. This

presents a unique challenge to South African land reform. It cannot simply

focus on agricultural production, even though the sector needs to be opened up

and employment conditions need to be significantly improved. Land reform has to

respond to a broad spectrum of residential needs and it has to do this in a

development context which must look beyond agriculture for its productive

foundation. Stimulating a non-agricultural rural livelihood base needs to be a

national strategic task which goes beyond, but is greater than, the

possibilities offered by the land reform project.

Ref ID : 1226

1358. Margeot, M.Y.G.H. Freehold land tenure: problems and prospects.

Development Southern Africa 4(3):437-440, 1987.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND TENURE

Ref ID : 1186

1359. Marinus, T.W. Reforming 'structures of governance' and 'institutions for

governance'. Learnings for tenure reform which can be drawn from Namaqualand.

In: Proceedings of the international conference on land tenure in the developing

world with a focus on Southern Africa, held at the University of Cape Town, 27-

29 January 1998, edited by Barry, M.Cape Town:Department of Geomatics,

University of Cape Town, 1998,p. 410-424.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND REFORM; LAND TENURE

Abstract : The objective of this paper is to contribute to the national Land

Reform Programme; and in particular to the third pillar of this programme,

namely tenure reform. It is maintained that the reform of tenure is directed at

present, towards tenure security (land holding) - while an equally important

aspect, namely the reform of tenure relating to sustainable natural resource use

and management is inadequately addressed. In an effort to meaningfully

contribute to the reform of tenure relating to sustainable natural resource use

and management, this paper provides an in-depth analysis of the communal

Leliefontein Reserve inhabitants' informal institutions (unwritten rules and

procedures and unofficial resource use/management strategies) and forms of

organization. While not idealizing rural people's informal institutions and

forms of organization, it is argued that if progress with regard to land tenure

reform is to be made beyond merely tenure security (land holding) to sustainable

resource use and management - the challenge of establishing a 'hybridic'

relationship between formal/ de jure and informal/ de facto institutions and

organizations would prove to be critical.

Ref ID : 318

1360. Marker, M.E. Soil erosion in a catchment near Alice, Ciskei, southern

Africa. In: Geomorphological studies in southern Africa, edited by Dardis, G.F.

and Moon, B.P.Rotterdam:Balkema, 1988,p. 267-276.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; CISKEI; EASTERN CAPE; COMMUNAL AREA; HYDROLOGY;

EROSION; POPULATION; RAINFALL

Notes : Changes in soil erosion in a small headwater catchment of the Tyume

drainage system was present, up to 1987. Variables such as settlement

distribution, settlement increase as a surrogate for population growth, pattern

of cultivated area, diminution of natural vegetation cover and rainfall

variability have been applied in an attempt to explain the changes in soil

erosion observed. There is evidence that soil erosion has increased

dramatically since 1980. Gullies have deepened and extended headwards and the

focus of badly eroded areas has moved from east-facing slopes. An increase in

soil erosion incidence can be seen up to 1972. An improvement in the position

was apparent by 1976 subsequent to resettlement villages away from the

watershed.

Ref ID : 1107

1361. Marker, M.E. Cenozoic climate change 1967-1996: the evidence from

geomorphology. (Serton Memorial Lecture 1996). South African Geographical

Journal 1998.(In Press)

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : PALAEOENVIRONMENTS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; SOUTHERN AFRICA

Abstract : The contribution of geomorphic evidence to the reconstruction of the

Cenozoic chronology of southern Africa is traced for the period 1967-1996.

Selected examples are provided based almost entirely on the author's own

contribution. The significance of karst evidence is stressed. Further evidence

should be sought in ecotone sites which respond sensitively to climatic changes,

however the preservation of evidence is often fortuitous so correlation from one

region to another is difficult.

Ref ID : 465

1362. Marker, M.E. and Evers, T. Iron Age settlement and soil erosion in the

eastern Transvaal, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 31:153-

165, 1976.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; PALAEOENVIRONMENTS; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; MPUMALANGA;

ARCHAEOLOGY; EROSION; LAND USE; POPULATION

Notes : This paper considers the hypothesis that the soil erosion manifest in

the catchment area in the vicinity of Lydenburg, eastern Transvaal, on the

eastern slopes of the Dorps River Valley was triggered by changing land-use

attendant on either the advent of Iron Age cultures or by increased population

pressure following closer settlement. The hypothesis is discussed in terms of

four variables: the environment; the population; the exploited area; and the

technology of the population.

Ref ID : 1400

1363. Marker, M.E., Gabarone, K.J., and Lichaba, T.H. Fuel consumption in the

Ciskei: a preliminary survey. Fort Hare Papers 7(1):71-79, 1979.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CISKEI; ENERGY; DEFORESTATION; COMMUNAL AREA; EASTERN CAPE; FOREST;

CONSERVATION; POVERTY; POPULATION; EROSION

Notes : The authors conclude that this preliminary study of fuel use in the

Alice service area of the Ciskei has demonstrated the preference for wood as a

fuel and its critical shortage. Low incomes combined with traditional custom

makes wood collection the usual means of supply but with the introduction of

Forest Conservation regulations, gathering has become illegal in many areas.

Gathering continues notwithstanding. Wood use far exceeds tree growth and leads

to veld denudation and forest degradation. Implications for conservation of

natural resources are apparent. The use of dung, as a substitute fuel, likewise

has implications for soil fertility and agricultural yields. A further point to

emerge is the relatively high use of paraffin when income permits and wood is

unavailable, either through lack of access or lack of time for collection. The

extreme poverty of most of the rural people forces them to use 'free' fuel.

This fuel is a renewable resource that is being used faster than it grows.

Denudation of the veld, together with overgrazing, both caused by population

pressure, cause deterioration followed by erosion, thus creating a hidden cost

for the country.

Ref ID : 1200

1364. Marriott, D.J. Vegetation change over fifty years in humid grasslands of

KwaZulu-Natal (Acocks's sites).University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. , 1997.

Eighty three of Acock's sites, originally surveyed about 50 years ago, were

surveyed in 1996 to determine the extent of grassland change in the humid

grasslands of KwaZulu-Natal. Sites were relocated using 1:10 000 scale ortho-

photos and present land cover was determined for each site. Forty six of the

sites that were still under original grassland were further examined to

determine present species composition. A survey method was designed that would

emulate Acock's data and comparisons were drawn between original and present

species composition. These differences were then analysed together with some

environmental variables to try to determine the factors which had the most

influence on the change and which environment and management factors are related

to the present variation in composition among sites. Of the 83 sites, 26 had

changed from natural vegetation to some other form of agriculture such as

forestry or cultivation. Most of this change had occurred in the Natal Mistbelt

Ngongoni Veld where large areas are forested. Cultivation is found

predominantly in the communal areas where subsistence cultivation practices are

employed. The remainder of the sites had changed significantly in terms of

their species composition. The most pronounced change had occurred in areas

under communal tenure although significant changes had occurred in the

commercially farmed areas. The direction of change was also more consistent

towards species that commonly predominate in heavily grazed areas in the

communal areas compared to the commercial areas. The exact reasons for this

were unclear but this could possibly be attributed to heavier stocking rates in

the communal areas. Change in floristic composition was also more pronounced at

lower altitudes where the mean annual rainfall is lower and the mean annual

temperature higher. This could possibly be a result of the vegetation at lower

altitudes being less stable and thus less resistant to change. Basal cover

differed significantly between commercial and communally grazed sites. Lower

basal cover was found in the communal sites where intensive grazing limits the

growth of individual tufts. Number of species found at each site did not differ

significantly between communal and commercially grazed sites. This study was

also a practical implementation of the resurveyeing of Acock's sites and the

original data set was found to be a useful baseline data set to determine coarse

long-term changes in the vegetation.Master of Science.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : VEGETATION CHANGE; GRASSLAND; KWAZULU NATAL; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY;

VEGETATION DYNAMICS; COMMUNAL AREA; STOCKING RATE; GRAZING EFFECTS; FORESTRY;

CULTIVATION; RAINFALL

Notes : Only the Abstract was photocopied.

Ref ID : 1057

1365. Martens, J.C., Danckwerts, J.E., Stuart-Hill, G.C., and Aucamp, A.J. Use

of multivariate techniques to identify vegetation units and monitor change on a

livestock production system in a semi-arid savanna of the eastern Cape. Journal

of the Grassland Society of southern Africa 7(3):184, 1990.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION; VEGETATION CHANGE; SAVANNA; GRAZING EFFECTS;

EASTERN CAPE

Notes : Only copied p.184.

Abstract : Species composition data of the grass layer were determined from

point surveys along permanently demarcated transects. These data were separated

into vegetation units using multivariate techniques. The repeatability of this

classification was tested on data collected over a period of time. The results

indicate that classification based on composition data collected from single

sampling period was adequate for practical purposes provided certain precautions

were taken. Change in vegetation was assessed by ordering sites from repeated

measurements and tracing site trajectories through ordination space. The trends

along the axes were strongly correlated with assessed condition score.

Ref ID : 319

1366. Martin, A.K. Comparison of sedimentation rates in the Natal Valley, south-

west Indian Ocean, with modern sediment yields in east coast rivers of Southern

Africa. South African Journal of Science 83:716-724, 1987.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; KWAZULU NATAL; SEDIMENTATION; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY;

LESOTHO; EROSION

Notes : Sediment volumes in the northernmost Natal Valley have been estimated

using 4 770 km of seismic reflection profiles. The total volume deposited in

the basin, and that accumulated since the formation of the regional acoustic

reflector 'Jimmy', have been calculated. The age of formation of the

sedimentary basin has been gauged using seafloor-spreading magnetic anomalies

and plate tectonic reconstructions, while reflector 'Jimmy' has been dated

micropalaeontologically. Recent compilations provide estimates of the sediment

yields of rivers draining into the Natal Valley. Using the average carbonate

content of seafloor samples, a revised estimate of biogenic input to the ocean

was made, which is within the range of values obtained by sediment trapping

experiments elsewhere. Modern rates of sediment supply are 12 to 22 times

greater than the geological average for the Natal Valley. An independent study

on the Tugela river catchment suggests modern sediment yields are 15 times

higher than those in the past. Sediment volumes in the Natal Valley suggests

that between 564 and 1033 m of rock have been eroded from the entire hinterland

in the last 100 Myr. Independent estimates for the Karoo, highveld and Lesotho

suggests 1 400 m of erosion over - 110 Myr. The great increase in modern

sediment yields may be ascribed to man's influence.

Ref ID : 2522

1367. Masika, P., Sonandi, A., and Van Averbeke, W. Tick control and tick-borne

diseases in cattle: how do farmers in the communal areas cope? ARDRI News ,

1997.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : COMMUNAL AREA; TRANSKEI; CISKEI; DROUGHT; LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Notes : The purpose of the study was to: 1. investigate tick control by small-

scale farmers in the communal areas of the former Transkei and Ciskei; and 2.

investigate the perceived causes, diagnosis and treatment of two tick-borne

diseases by farmers. Field visits and interviews were used for the study. 98%

of respondents in the areas where the study was conducted indicated their

consistent participation in every dipping event of the state-dipping programme.

Other tick control measures such as the use of razor blades, scissors or by

pulling them by hand are mentioned as practised by 10% of livestock owners.

Farmers identified disease as the most common cause of cattle mortality,

followed by starvation. 78% of farmers identified the consumption of lush green

grass by cattle during spring and summer as the cause of gall sickness. A

proportion of farmers (42%) denied knowing the cause of red water disease,

whilst 12% identified ticks to be responsible for its occurrence. The following

percentages of farmers, perceived the following as the causes of red water

disease: 8% - lush green grass; 5% - dry grass; 7% -spiders; 7% - drinking of

unclean water; 7% - drought; and 5% - excessive sucking. This report is

available at ARDRI, University of Fort Hare. See also ID ref. no 2339.

Ref ID : 2273

1368. Mason, S.J. Sea-surface temperature - South African rainfall associations,

1910-1989. International Journal of Climatology 15:119-135, 1995.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : RAINFALL

Ref ID : 1907

1369. Mason, S.J. Climatic change over the Lowveld of South Africa. Climatic

Change 32:35-54, 1996.

Reprint : Not in File,

Ref ID : 1784

1370. Mason, S.J. Recent changes in El Nino - southern oscillation events and

their implications for southern African climate. Transactions of the Royal

Society of South Africa 52(2):377-403, 1997.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CLIMATE; SOUTHERN AFRICA; RAINFALL

Abstract : Since the late 1970s, El Nino episodes have been unusually recurrent,

while the frequency of strong La Nina events has been low. With the long El

Nino sequence of 1991 - 1995, concern has been expressed about the possibility

of climatic change in the equatorial Pacific. However, changes in the frequency

of El Nino-Southern Oscillation events and earlier persistent El Nino and La

Nina sequences can be detected in the historical and palaeoclimatic records.

The recurrent warm event conditions of the first half of the 1990s are the

result of the persistence of an anomalously warm pool near the date line which

shifted the main centre of convection over Indonesia toward the centre of the

equatorial Pacific Ocean. The eastward shift of the convection centre has

allowed the penetration of westerly wind anomalies, associated with Madden-

Julian wave activity, further into the western and central Pacific, thus

initiating sequences of downwelling Kelvin waves. It has been suggested that

the warm pool near the date-line may be a result of an abrupt warming trend in

sea-surface temperatures throughout the tropical Indian and Pacific oceans. The

abrupt warming has been attributed to the enhanced-greenhouse effect, but may

equally be indicative of inter-decadal variability. The recent changes in El

Nino events are therefore not necessarily an indication of climatic change.

Although the generally dry conditions over parts of southern Africa over the

last 15 - 20 years may be attributed in part to the relatively high ratio of

warm to cold events, no long term change in the mean annual rainfall of the

subcontinent can be implied at this stage.

Ref ID : 422

1371. Mason, S.J., Joubert, A.M., Cosijn, C., and Crimp, S.J. Review of seasonal

forecasting techniques and their applicability to southern Africa. Water SA

22(3):203-210, 1996.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : MODELS; FORECASTING; SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE; RAINFALL; SOUTHERN

AFRICA; METHODOLOGIES

Abstract : The development of a seasonal rainfall forecasting capability has

recently become a priority of many research organisations in Southern Africa,

but the methodologies used are still at an early stage of development. In other

areas, high forecast skills are generally associated with tropical atmospheric

variability, largely because of a thermally direct response of the tropical

atmosphere to oceanic heat anomalies. Over SA, most current forecast skill

relates to rainfall variability attributable to the tropical atmospheric

circulation, including El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-related anomalies.

Consequently, highest forecastability exists in the summer rainfall region

during the peak rainfall months, December to February, and is particularly high

in areas that are strongly affected by ENSO activity. The extratropical

atmosphere has an important influence on the rainfall of the region during the

first half of the summer season, when forecast skill is relatively low.

Occasionally, the extratropical atmosphere also remains dominant during the peak

summer months, resulting in a poor forecast for that season. Consequently, an

improved understanding of the response of the temperate atmosphere to tropical

anomalies and internal blocking should result in considerably improved skill for

seasonal forecasts through the summer season.