Essays on islam

كَلِمَتُهُ) i.e., the word, not Kalimatu (كَلِمَةُ), a word. Thus the Qur'an recognises Jesus as the one expression of God's Will. The crucifixion of Christ is denied in Suratu'n-Nisa' (iv. 156). Muhammad borrowed this idea from the Manichæans. See on this point Browne, Literary History of Persia, p. 162.

¹ It is said that prophets in their previous existence, (as spirits) declared their submission to Muhammad and were in this world merely his representatives. This, however, is contrary to the verses, "We make no difference between them" (iii. 73); ''We make no distinction between any of His Apostles" (ii. 285).

² Moses at Sinai and Muhammad in the night of the Mi'raj. (Baidawi, vol. i, p. 130). Some say to the Anbiya' Ulu'l-'Azm also.

³ "Our Prophet is the seal of the Apostles, and his law will not he abrogated till time is fulfilled. And Isa (Jesus), after his descent, will judge according to the law of our Prophet. It is said that he

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Traditions, as usual, support this position. "I am the chief of the sons of men." "Adam and all beside him will be ranged under my flag in the judgment-day." 'There will be no prophet after me.' It is said that the law given by Moses was harsh and severe; that by Christ, was mild and gracious; but that the law given by Muhammad is perfect, for it combines both the quality of strictness and that of graciousness; according to the Tradition: "I always laugh and by laughing kill." Each prophet is said to have been sent to his own tribe, but Muhammad was sent for all men. A Tradition states: "I was raised up for all men whether white or black, other prophets were not, except for their own tribe."

Many Sunnis hold that prophets are superior to angels, and sometimes quote the verse, "Verily, God chose Adam and Noah and the family of Abraham and the family of Imran out of the worlds " (iii. 30), as a proof of it.¹ The Mu'tazilas say that the angels are superior to the prophets. Al-Jubba'i, a Mu'tazila, quotes the verse, "Neither do I say unto you, 'Verily I am an angel'" (vi. 50), to prove that prophets are inferior. Qadi 'Abdu'l-Jubbar in his commentary denies this, and says that al-Jubba'i interprets the words as if Muhammad meant that he had not the glory and dignity of an angel, whereas all that he meant to declare was that he had not the rank of an angel, because, as a matter of fact, his glory was greater.² The Shi'ahs assert that the twelve Imams are superior to prophets. There is also a Tradition which says,

will take it from the Qur'an and the Sunnat." Al-Fudali, quoted in Macdonald's Muslim Theology, p. 345.

¹ Baidawi, vol. i, p. 152.

² "The Apostles of mankind are more excellent than the Apostles of the angels; and the Apostles of the angels are more excellent than the generality of mankind; and the generality of mankind of the true believers is more excellent than the generality of the angels." (An-Nasafi, quoted by Macdonald, Muslim Theology, p. 315.)

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"The 'Ulama of my faith are as the prophets of the children of Israel."

Ibn Khaldun (vol. i., pp. 196-205) gives a very interesting account of prophetic inspiration. He speaks somewhat as follows. If we contemplate the world and the creatures it contains, we shall recognise a perfect order, a regular system, a sequence of cause and effect, a connection between different categories of existence, and a transformation of beings from one category of existence to another. Then the phenomena of the visible world indicate to us the existence of an agent whose nature is different from that of the body, who is, in fact, a spiritual existence. This agent, which is the soul, must, on the one hand, be in contact with the existences of this world, and, on the other, with the existences of the next category of superiority, and one whose essential qualities are pure perception and clear intelligence. Such are the angels. It follows, then, that the human soul has a tendency towards the angelic world. All this is quite in accordance with the idea that, according to a regular order, all the categories of existences in the universe are in mutual contact by means of their faculties and on account of their nature.

The souls of men may be divided into three classes. The first kind of soul is too feeble by nature to attain to a perception of the spiritual: it has to content itself with moving in the region of sense and imagination. Thus it can understand concepts and affirmations. It can raise itself high in its own category, but cannot pass its limit.

The souls of the second class are carried by a reflective movement and a natural disposition towards a spiritual intelligence. They can enter into a state of contemplation which results in ecstasy. This is the intuition of the saints (Auliya'),¹ to whom God has given this divine knowledge.

¹ That the "Auliya' " are distinguished above ordinary mortals is

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The souls of the third class are created with the power of disengaging themselves altogether from their human bodies in order that they may rise to the angelic state, where they become like angels. In a moment of time such a soul perceives the sublime company (of angels) in the sphere which contains them. It there and then hears the speech of the soul and the divine voice. Such are the souls of the prophets. God has given to these souls the power of leaving the human body. Whilst thus separate from it, God gives to them His revelation. The prophets are endowed by God with such a purity of disposition, such an instinct of uprightness, that they are naturally inclined to the spiritual world. They are animated by an ardour quite peculiar to their order. When they return from the angelic state they deliver to men the revelations they have received. The journey to, the journey from the angelic state, and the comprehension of the revelation received there, occupy less time than the twinkling of an eye. So rapidly do the souls of prophets move. So instantaneously do they receive and understand God's revelations. This is why inspiration is called wahi, a word which, according to Ibn Khaldun, means to make haste.

A Nabi (who must be a wise and a free man, that is, one who is not a slave of another, and one also who is free from imperfection either of body or mind) receives wahi, but has not necessarily to deliver to men the orders of God. A Rasul, who must possess the same qualifications as a Nabi, is one who is commanded to deliver God's message to men, though he does not necessarily abrogate what preceding Rasuls have delivered. Some Rasuls do so, but the distinguishing mark of the Rascal is that he delivers to men commands

maintained on the authority of: "Are not the friends (auliya') of God those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief" (x. 63).

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direct from God, and is specially commissioned so to do. Thus every Rasul is a Nabi, whilst every Nabi is not a Rasul. ¹

The orthodox belief is that prophets are free from sin.² The Ash'arians believe that the power of sinning is not created in them. The Mu'tazilas deny this, but admit the existence of some quality which keeps them from evil. These theories do not agree with actual facts. Prophets, like other men, commit faults, but here comes in the Muslim distinction of sins into "great sins" (kabira), and "little sins" (saghira). ³ The "great sins" are murder, adultery, disobedience to God and to parents, avoiding fighting against infidels, drunkenness, usury, neglecting the Friday prayers and the Ramadan fast, forgetting the Qur'an after reading it, swearing falsely or by any other than God, magic, gambling, calling on the names of deceased persons and beating the breast at such times,⁴ dancing, music, disrespect to a Hafiz, shaving the beard, omitting to say the "darud" (i.e., on whom and on whose family be the peace and mercy of God) whenever the name of Muhammad is mentioned. These are all "great sins," and can only be forgiven after due repentance; the "little sins" are forgiven if some good actions are done. "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close of day, and at the approach of night; for the good deeds

¹ There is some dispute as to whether a woman can attain to the rank of prophets. The Ash'arians say she can, and mention as possible prophetesses the Virgin Mary, the wife of Pharaoh, Sarah, Hagar, and some add the names of Eve and of the mother of Moses.

² Some of the subsections of the Shi'ahs, in order to exalt the Imams, hold that prophets can sin. The Hashamiyah, for example, say: "The prophets sin, but the Imams are pure" (Shahrastani, al-Milal wa'n-Nihal, p. 142).

³ "To those who avoid great crimes and scandals, but commit only lighter faults, verily thy Lord will be diffuse of mercy" (liii. 33).

⁴ This is an orthodox blow at the Shi'ah practices in the month of Muharram. Shi'ahs consider this a good act.

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drive away the evil deeds" (xi. 116). It is the universal belief that a prophet never commits the greater sins, but there is a difference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins. Some limit even this frailty to the period before wahi comes upon them. The general opinion, however, is that the frailties which they show are merely faults and slight imperfections not amounting to sin.¹

This, to the Muslim mind, at once disposes of a difficulty the Qur'an itself raises on this point. With the exception of Jesus Christ, the Anbiya' Ulu'l-'Azm are spoken of as doing what every one except an orthodox Muslim would call sin. Adam's transgression ² is referred to in Sura ii. 29-37, and in Sura vii. 10-24. "They said, 'O our Lord! with ourselves have we dealt unjustly; if Thou forgive us not and have not pity on us, we shall surely be of those that perish.'" (vii. 22). The sin of Noah is plainly hinted at in "Unless Thou forgive me and be merciful to me, I shall be one of the lost " (xi. 49). There is a similar request in Sura lxxi. 29. Abraham also is represented as saying, "When I am sick, He healeth me, and who will cause me to die and again quicken me, and who, I hope, will forgive me my sins in the day of reckoning " (xxvi. 80-82). Moses is described as having done "a work of Satan" in killing a man, and as saying, "'O my Lord, I have sinned to my own hurt; forgive me.' So God forgave him; for He is the forgiving, the merciful. He said: 'Lord, because Thou hast showed

¹ Klein, Religion of Islam, p. 73.

² It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip, but it brought good to the world. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled; and the word of God, "I have not created men and jinns except for worship," would not have been fulfilled. It is also said that the sin of Adam was not like the sins of other men, and, that that which was forbidden to him outwardly, was commanded to him inwardly (منهيّ ظاهراً مامور باطناً ), and that there was a secret understanding between him and God which we do not know.
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me this grace, I will never again be the helper of the wicked'" (xxviii. 15, 16).

The following passages refer to Muhammad. "Be thou steadfast and patient; for true is the promise of God; and seek pardon for thy sin" (xl. 57). Baidawi says that this refers to his remissness in propagating Islam. According to the Tafsir-i-ibn 'Abbas, it is "the deficiency in giving thanks for the blessings God bestowed on thee and thy Companions;" according to the Tafsir-i-Husaini, it is "that the Prophet as an act of worship sought pardon, and so rose to a high rank, or that he did it to set an example, according to his Tradition, 'I seek pardon seventy times daily;'¹ or it means simply, ' Seek pardon for the sins of thy people.'" In reply to all these ingenious attempts to get rid of a very troublesome fact, it may be noted that the word used for the Prophet's sin (dhanb) is also used in describing the sin of ordinary people. Thus, "Others have owned their sins (dhanb)" (ix. 103). "But the wicked shall not be asked of their sins (dhunub)" (xxviii. 78). The crime of Potiphar's wife is called dhanb (xii. 29). See also Suras iv. 39; xli. 14, for the same use of this word.

"Ask pardon for thy sin, and for believers, both men and women" (xlvii. 21). Mu'alim says that the Prophet was told to ask pardon for his sins, not because he had any sin, or really personally needed any pardon, but because, if he so asked, it would become a sunnat practice for the people. Thus each one can now say, "Pardon my sin." In the book known as "Tibyan" it is said that "seek pardon for thy sin" means "ask for purity, which will keep away sin." ² Ibn 'Abbas quotes the verse, "Have We not opened thine heart for thee
¹ Another Tradition quoted by Ghazali is, "I ask the Almighty for pardon and repent unto Him seventy times daily." For the original, see Klein, Religion of Islam, p. 73.

² These quotations are taken from the Tafsir-i-Husaini, vol. ii, p. 348.

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and taken oft from thee thy burden?" (xciv. 1-2), and says "thy burden" means "thy sin." A more common interpretation is to refer this to anxiety or to trouble of mind. The scandal caused by the Prophet's conduct with the wife of Zaid and with the Egyptian slave Mary necessitated a pretended revelation of God's will in reference to these events. The circumstances will be found fully detailed in Sura xxxiii. 36-38, and in Sura lxvi. 1-5. One of the most important verses is: "Verily, We have won for thee an undoubted victory, in token that God forgiveth thy earlier and later fault" (xxviii. 1-2). It is not quite clear what victory is here referred to.¹ Husain and Baidawi say that it is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being prophetically used for the future. The following explanations are given of the expression "earlier and later fault." (1) God has forgiven thy sin committed before and after the descent of wahi, (2) before and after the taking of Mecca, or (3) before the descent of this Sura. (4) Salmi says: "The earlier sin refers to the sin of Adam committed when Muhammad was in the loins of his great ancestor and thus connected with him; the later sin refers to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is connected with him, just as the sin of Adam was the predecessor and cause of their sin." (5) Imam Abu'l-Lais says: "The words refer to the sin of Adam, and to those of the followers of the Prophet. Both are connected with Muhammad, because the former is forgiven by the blessing, and the latter by the intercession of Muhammad."

Muslim and Bukhari say that one day the Prophet said to his followers: "Not one of you shall enter Paradise except through the mercy of God," and was asked "Not even thou, O apostle of God?" He said "not even I." Abu Huraira says that he heard

¹ Tafsir-i-Husaini, vol. ii, p. 331; Baidawi, vol. ii, p. 266,

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Muhammad say: "Verily, I ask God for pardon." It is said that Muhammad felt such remorse for slight faults that he gave the serious name of sin to them. The reply to this plea is obvious, for, from a Muslim standpoint, the Qur'an is God's word and so it is God and not Muhammad who speaks of Muhammad's sin.

From the extracts from the Qur'an it appears that sin is imputed to the prophets, though Muslims evade the charge by the casuistry described. Still it is a striking fact that the one sinless member of the Anbiya'-Ulu'l-'Azm, the one sinless prophet of Islam, is none other than the Lord Jesus Christ. There is no passage in the Qur'an which hints at sin, even in the modified form in which Muslims attribute it to other prophets, being committed by him: no passage which speaks of his seeking for pardon.

In the Traditions (Sahihu'l Bukhari, vol. iii. 191) there is the same absence of any imputation of evil to Christ. Thus Muhammad is reported to have said: "The people will be gathered together at the day of judgment and will say, 'If some one would only intercede for us with our Lord.' They will go to Adam and say, 'Thou art the father of men. God created thee with His own hand. Angels made sijda to thee and taught thee the names of everything. Intercede for us with thy Lord, so that we may be happy in one place.' Adam replied, 'I am not fit for this work for you,' and he remembered his sin (dhanb), and was ashamed. Then they went to Noah. Certainly he was the first prophet raised up by God for the ruler of the world. He replied, 'I am not fit for this work for you,' and remembered his questioning of God on that which was not for him to know. He will be ashamed and will say, 'Go to the friend of God.' They will then go to Abraham, who will say, 'I am not fit for this; go to Moses, to whom God spake and gave the Taurat.'

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They will go to him, and he will say, 'I am not fit for it,' and will remember his killing a man, and will be ashamed, and will say, 'Go to Jesus, the servant of God and the messenger, the word of God and His spirit;' but Jesus will say, ' I am not fit for this; go to Muhammad, the servant to whom God hath forgiven the former and the latter sin' (dhanb)." In sharp contrast to the case of Muhammad and the other prophets, all reference to sin is omitted in the case of Jesus.¹

It is the universal belief that prophets work miracles.² A miracle is defined to be "Kharqu'l-'adat," that is, something contrary to the usual course of nature. The object for which a miracle is performed must be a moral one, and chiefly to attest the truth of the statements made by the prophet. Muhammad makes, in the Qur'an, no distinct claim to the power of working miracles; on the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. The Quraish said: "By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to gush forth for us from the earth; or till thou have a garden of palm-trees and grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst; or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces; or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say, 'Am I more than a man, an Apostle?'" (xvii. 92-95). "The unbelievers say, 'Why hath not a sign been given him by his Lord?' Nay, but thou art only a warner, and unto every people hath been

¹ The Qur'an speaks of the immaculate and miraculous birth of Jesus Christ, "When God had given them a perfect child" (vii. 190). "Verily Jesus is as Adam in the sight of God. He created him of dust: He then said to him 'Be and he was'" (iii. 52). Thus, according to the Qur'an, neither Jesus nor Adam had a human father.

² Muslim theologians name seven characteristics of a true miracle. These definitions are given in Arabic and in English by Klein, Religion of Islam, p. 75.
.

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given a guide" (xiii. 8).¹ The commentator Baidawi says: "When the people demanded miracles such as those wrought by Moses and Jesus, Muhammad is told that he is only a warner. The demand was withheld because it was made perversely and not with sincerity." "Nothing hindered Us from sending thee with the power of working miracles, except that the people of old treated them as lies" (xvii. 60). The reason here given is that such power was useless in the case of former prophets, a statement which scarcely accords with facts. Other passages on this point are Suras vi. 37; vii. 204; xvii. 58; xix. 48. Former prophets, Muhammad used to say, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles were confined to their own times. The Qur'an, the great miracle of Islam, was for all ages. He needed no other sign than this. But his followers maintain that in this, as in all other respects, he was equal to all and superior to some prophets, and produce various passages of the Qur'an in support of their view. Thus, according to Jalalu'd-din as-Syuti, if to Adam was given the power of naming everything, Muhammad also possessed the same power. Enoch was exalted on high, but Muhammad was taken to the "Qaba Qausain," the "two bows' length," where Gabriel, "one mighty in power," appeared to him (liii. 5-9). Ishmael was ready to be sacrificed, but Muhammad endured the splitting of his chest; ² Joseph was to some extent handsome, but
¹ These words occur in Suratu'r Rad, the last Sura delivered at Mecca. To the Quraish who pressed him to give a miraculous sign the message came, "Whom God causeth to err, no guide shall there be for him. Chastisement awaiteth them in this present life and more grievous shall be the chastisement of the next" (xiii. 34), Thus with words of warning and threatening of eternal fire and everlasting punishment on those who rejected his claims, the Prophet left the city in which for thirteen long years he had preached and pleaded in vain.

² "Have We not opened thine heart for thee?" (xciv. 1). Tradition relates that when young, two angels cut open his breast and took out a black drop. Many other marvels are also connected with this event.

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Muhammad was the very perfection of beauty; Moses brought water from the rock, but Muhammad produced it from his fingers. The sun was stayed in its course by Joshua, and so it was by Muhammad. Solomon had a great kingdom, Muhammad a greater, for he possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth. Wisdom was given to John the Baptist whilst yet a child, so also were wisdom and understanding granted to Muhammad at an early period of his life. Jesus could raise the dead,¹ so also could Muhammad. In addition to all these, the special miracles of the Prophet are the splitting of the moon asunder (the truth of which Nizam, a Mu'tazila, denied), the mi'raj, the coming of a tree into his presence, and above all the wonderful miracle of the Qur'an itself. The splitting of the moon asunder is referred to in "The hour of judgment approacheth, and the moon hath been split in sunder" (liv. i). The following accounts are given by Bukhari — Mas'ud says: "The moon was split into two parts, one above the mountain, one under; and the Prophet said, 'Bear witness.'" 'Abdu'llah says: "We were with the Prophet; the moon became two parts, and the Prophet said to us, 'Bear witness.'" Imam Zahid says that Abu Jahl and a Jew visited the Prophet, and demanded a sign from him on pain of death. The Prophet made a sign with his little finger, and at once the moon separated into two parts, one of which remained in the sky, the other went off to a long distance. The Jew believed in Islam forthwith. Baidawi says: "Some infidels asked the Prophet of God for a sign, then he split the moon." (vol. ii. p. 296). Some, however, refer the passage to the future, as they consider the splitting of the moon to
¹ The miracles said to have been performed by Jesus in his childhood (xix. 31-2: iii. 43) are called mu'jizat, the name given to miracles performed by a true prophet, for, even when a babe, he said: "He hath made me a prophet " (xix. 31).

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be one of the signs of the last day. Some commentators on the verse, "When they (Meccans) see a sign, they fall to mocking" (xxxvii. 14), say the "sign" referred to is "the splitting of the moon or some such marvel."

The mi'raj, or night ascent, is mentioned in "Glory be to Him who carried His servant by night from the sacred temple (of Mecca) to the temple that is more remote, whose precinct We have blessed, that We might show him of Our signs" (xvii. 1). Muslim writers, who are fond of the marvellous, narrate at length the wonderful things the Prophet saw and did on this eventful night; but some maintain that it was only a vision, and quote the words, "We ordained the vision which We showed thee," (xvii. 62) in proof of this assertion. Baidawi supports this view ¹ but also gives other explanations. The general consensus of opinion is on the side of a bodily migration. Be that as it may, all orthodox Muslims maintain the superiority of Muhammad as a worker of miracles over all other prophets.²