Otto-suhr-institute

Text Type

Database

Corpus

Texts on the coincidence, the statistics or the games.

Texts published before 1945.

64

0

Descriptive texts or literary

50

42

Exploratory Texts

80

66

Texts supporters

Lotteries

24

23

Advisory Drawing

24

23

Sortition and elective

80

58

Under total supporters9

124

97

Under total exploratory and supporters

204

163

Total

318

205

Total with correction for the analysis scientometrics

318

254

Illustration 12: thematic distribution of the texts of the corpus.

1.3 .1Tools employees

We can define the scientometrie as " the measure of scientific activity " in a particular domain (Gingras 2008, 3). In the present context, two sets of tools have seems appropriate. The first is a bibliometric analysis it is-a-say centered on the production of scientific publications and is based on the calculation of four indicators:

1.Evolution of the number of publications on the period, classified according to the diagram presented above. It is here of descriptive statistics.

2.Analysis of citations. This traditional tool of the bibliometrics is has done an analysis matrix of citations that a text " given " and then " receives " on subsequently in order to highlight the degree of intertextuality, of a corpus in the form of its density and of the evolution of the latter (see illustration 13, p. 96).

3.Analysis of centrality of texts and authors. More than a text receives of citations, more it is central. It is here to make the sum of citations received by each text/author in order to identify the works/authors headlights.

4.Analysis of intercitation. This indicator allows you to measure the degree of integration of a set of texts. It is calculated by establishing for each text the ratio between the total of its references and the number of references that are part of the matrix. Thus,

9The sub-total is less than the sum of the proposals, a difference which comes from the fact that the texts including proposals in different areas have been counted only once to avoid a distortion.

95

Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics

If a text includes 100 references 50 of which are in the matrix, its rate of intercitation will be 50 %. We can formulate the hypothesis that a rate of intercitation high is a sign of a significant integration of a network of texts / authors.

The density D measure the number N of cross-citations between X texts, reported to the Y number of citations possible between these texts. To calculate Y it is necessary to multiply X by itself and then divide the result by 2. In effect, it is assumed in bibliometrics publication as a first quote (so each text is quoted at least itself, of or the square of the number of texts) but no text can quote texts later (therefore it is necessary to divide the final result by two). The formula is therefore:

D = N / Y = N / (X2/2)

For the database (DBD) and the corpus (DC) the density is therefore has calculate:

DBD = N / (3182/2)

DC = N / (2542/2)

N is obtained as the sum of references of each text to previous texts of the matrix.

Illustration 13: Calculation of the density of the matrix of citations.

The second series of indicators concerning the interactions within the group of authors in the form of three additional elements. In the first place, it has carried out an analysis of accompaniers thanks certain texts and referring directly to other authors of the corpus which can provide valuable indications on the interactions within it. In the second place it has carried out an analysis of the co-editors. It is here to see what authors of the database have written together. It can be assumed that a large number of co-editors is the sign of an important integration of the network of authors (Havemann 2009). In the third place, it has identified the places of discussion, such as the scientific symposia or the discussion forums the authors of the corpus were taken and take part. 96

1. Methodology

1.3 .2interest of the approach

THE bibliometric analysis is a scientific method often controversial and it seems important to emphasize here the limits and the inputs before continuing. The most important criticism is quite logically that of the aspect too in the quantitative approach which tends to neglect the qualitative depth of scientific output. A limit to which the qualitative analysis in chapter three should answer. The second weakness of the bibliometrics, as of any statistical approach, is that it is subject to distortion effects that should make us consider the figures with a certain critical distance. Among these distortions, we found:

1.The effect of exponential growth in the literature (Havemann 2009, 23) which tends to relativize the impression given that a scientific field " exploded " when the number of publication grows exponentially.

2." The Matthew effect " on. In a whole bibliographic, the authors most cited tend to be increasingly cites (Havemann 2009, 43)10.

3.The effect of network. If one is interested only in the literature on the printout, we leave aside the other search fields and it is not possible to make comparisons of the evolution of other areas of interest of the political philosophy. It therefore becomes difficult to judge the real impact of the corpus on the whole of the discipline.

4.The impossibility of completeness. The criteria for the construction of the corpus presented in beginning of chapter have already made this limit visible.

5.It is also certain that the subsequent classification is partly arbitrary. It may be as well that a first edition of a text is not the one who had a scientific impact or that conversely a year is fruitful in texts but that none of them do is really necessary.

The whole of these limits should not however make us forget the interest of the approach and the direction that may bear a quantitative analysis in this area when it is coupled to other outils11. The calculations are used to assess the internal growth of the corpus, of its phases of

10Name given by Merton has this phenomenon which returns has the gospel according to Matthew: " We will give to the one which has, and it will be in the abundance, but was the one who was not hath even what he has. ≪

11As the said Havemann (2009, 10) : " Es ist deshalb zu fragen, wie Publikationsstatistiken uberhaupt sinnvoll interpretiert werden konnen. Als wie verschieden sich auch die Bedeutung eines Forschungsresultats herausstellt - sie steht keineswegs von Anfang year und fur immer fest - so Ã-sterreich zeigt die Publikation year doch, dass Verfasser, Gutachter und Herausgeber hmi ein notwendiges Minimum year Bedeutung zugemessen haben. Davon kann bei der Interpretation statistischer Verteilungen von Publikationszahlen Voraussetzungen werden, ganz so wie bei der Interpretation von Bevolkerungsstatistiken, bei denen auch unterschiedliche NC: Hoechst ? [demands 97

Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics

Stagnation or recession. It is possible to identify cycles, trends. It is also possible to measure the degree of coherence of a set of texts and to put in before the evolution of its integration within a coherent whole.

2. The descriptive texts and historical

The set of descriptive texts, which represents 20.8 per cent of the database of 20.5% of the corpus), is thematically very varies. For the sake of clarity we will begin by presenting the bibliographic field wide around a few important works concerning the accident as well as the publications resulting from the literature, which are the most cited by the authors working on the draw (2.1 ), before then present the books mostly descriptive of chronological manner around five major historical blocks/thematic (2.2 ). Some historical texts contain proposals for introduction of schemes of prints, but because of the limits set out above, they will be treated here.

2.1The wide-field: Random, statistical and literature

We have seen previously that the prize draw is based on a time aleatoire12. It is therefore not surprising that most of the authors is interesting has one also looks on the other. In this framework, two books font figure of reference13: on one side, the article of Chaitin on the random defined in terms of mathematical algorithms (1975) and on the other the book of Bennett (1998) on the notion of hasard14. In a optical more concentrated on the history of the understanding of the concept of chance and that of the development of statistics, we found the books of Hacking (1975 ; 1990) and Bellhouse (1988) as well as the monograph of Thomas (1971) on the history of divination in Europe as a prism of the evolution of the reception of the concept of chance. Beyond these academic books, most authors is interesting the draw by policy cite and take as a basis was debate of literary works. The most often cited is without a doubt the new of Borges (1944) on the lottery

Gone als Einwohner einer Stadt, z. B. , gezahlt werden. Und wie eine Bevolkerungsstruktur nach Geschlecht, Alter, Einkommen usw. ' ' ERHOBEN ' ' werden kann, so haben auch Journalaufsatze Merkmale, die es lohnt, in die Analysis einzubeziehen. ≪

12See chapter 1, 1.3 , p. 41.

13The term " reference " refers here to the authors of the corpus, it is not question of general reference.

14Chaitin has pursued this idea in two other texts, Chaitin (1988) and (2001).

98

2. The descriptive texts and historical

Has Babylon which is the basis of innumerable comments and marks the starting point for many reflections. The news of Jackson (1949), Dick (1955) and Greene (1985) just as the novel of Rhinehart (1972) are also often cites15. There are still a few texts which deal with the circulation of literary manner without being of references to the authors of the corpus: it is so with Wells (1903), Klein (1968) or Clarke (1986)16.

2.2Historical texts and descriptive studies

The draw was used in very many historical frameworks; it has therefore been introduced and commented on not only by subsequent authors but also contemporary. We found as well in each of the historic blocks and/or thematic sources of primary and secondary sources.

2.2 .1Athens or the golden age of the draw

The Athenian democracy classic is not only the first case widely documented for the use of the draw in politics; it is also the most studied of all. Almost all the authors of the corpus font reference has the city-state in one form or the other.17 indeed. The primary sources concerning major circulation has Athens are located in the texts of Aristotle, Herodotus, Plato, Xenophon and in the Pseudo-Xenophon 18. The most valuable of all these texts for the current knowledge of the mechanisms of prints employees then, it is certainly the constitution of Athens, or constitution of the Athenians, found 1879 and assigned to Aristotle. In an interesting way, the first book modern secondary dedicated has the study of the prize draw policy has Athens (Headlam 1891) is published the same year that the first publication of the Constitution.19 when doing so it. What is more, the ancient text confirms the hypothesis

15Rhinehart is a pseudonym. The adventures of Luke Rhinehart in The Dice Man is continuing in three other novels in 1993 and 2000. The first novel had caused numerous reactions when its publication and quickly became a best-seller . It is cited nine times in the corpus, which the range in place 20 of the texts the most quoted.

16It should be noted in this respect that they are the authors of science-fiction which most often have the developed the idea.

17It is i.e. either by citing the primary sources or secondary. The policy of Aristotle is mentioned 36 times in the database which in fact the 3e text the most cited. The constitution of Athens arrives it at the 8th rank and Plato's Republic to the 12e.

18However, it is true that some of the classic authors grant a central importance in the draw while other do that the mention. Aristotle (politics, books IV, 15 and VI, 2; rhetoric, 1393b3 ; constitution of Athens, 43-55 and 63-65), Herodotus (Histories, book III, § 80-84), and Plato (republic, 557a-558 and 562a-564e; Laws, 740a, 741b, 745e, 759b-c) are part of the first category. The Pseudo-Xenophon (I. 2, 10-12 and I. 3, 1-3) and Xenophon (memorable, I. 2.9 and III. 9.10 ) belong rather to the second.

19Headlam was working on his book for several years it is-a-say before having taken knowledge of the contents of the constitution.

99

Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics

Developed by Headlam that the drawing Athenian was largely independent of any religious motivation, an opinion then particularly minoritaire20. The discovery of the function of the kleroteria by Dow (1940), complemented by the work of Bishop (1970) fortified this vision in the following decades and the majority of current studies presents the Athenian sortition as a central pillar of democratic practice ancient. Bleicken (1995, 313) characterizes and of " Sicherung der demokratischen Idea " (securing the democratic idea) and Hansen (1991, 51) judge the assumption of a drawing based on a religious motivation as a theory " attractive but weakly founded " on. We can quote a few more secondary sources important dedicated has the technical details of the use of the draw in Athens, particularly in the context of the ball as the work of Lang (1959), Alford (1985), Kroll (1972) or even Rhodes (1985) and Blackwell (2003).

In comparison to this profusion of work, it is that very little research concerning other ancient custom of the drawing, which is in part of the lack of sources. The two major exceptions are the texts judeo-christians based on the bible and the studies on the Roman Empire which also did a wide use of tirage21.

2.2 .2The Middle Ages and the Renaissance

The documentation and the discussion on the uses of the draw during the middle age European are based mainly on the case of italian communes, Florence and Venice in particular. This situation is not only due to the good condition and has the quantity of their municipal archives but is just as the consequence of the fact that actors remained famous took direct part in the debate then. This is for example the case of Bruni or Guicciardini who have left of accounts-rendered very dynamic the lively debates which waved then Florence22, debates analyzed in detail by the subsequent work of Manin (1996) and Dowlen

20See Glotz (1907) or Ehrenberg was inspired (1927). A remarkable exception is Heistebergk (1896), which followed Headlam in its conclusions from the beginning.

21On the bible, see Lindblom (1962) and Boursin (1990). On the Roman empire see Meier (1956), Staveley (1982), Manin (1997), Rosenstein (1995) and Williams (1998). One of the sources the most comprehensive regarding both the bible that Rome remains - despite his age - the book of Gataker (1619).

22Bruni (1421, Book V ; 1439), Guicciardini (1513, 1515). Machiavelli (1525) also mentioned the sortition in his writings - for example, the Bank plays a central role in its proposal for a constitution for Florence - but he does not discuss really the subject. Also note that the few authors cited here represent only the tip of the iceberg. There are a large number of writings of the period referring to the topic that would deserve to be studied closely.

100

2. The descriptive texts and historical

(2008A) on the basis of historical studies conducted by Najemy (1982) concerning Florence and Lane (1973) and Finlay (1980) in the case of Venice.

The kingdom of Aragon, who represents the other example of wide use of the drawing during the period of the European renaissance is on the other hand virtually ignored, even though theinsaculacion (put in bags) has played a major role and constantly growing has all political levels from 1446. The use of the draw persisted in addition well after the end of the reign of Ferdinand II (in 1515) which had little has little imposed by the system. The the most extensive reviews are found among Bisson (1988), Nels (1972), Sesma Munoz (1978) and Vicens (1980). The subject has recently found a new interest (Weller 2010)23. Other studies still are interested has cases more scattered and less central for the use of the drawing in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, for example concerning the cases of land distribution (Gretton 1912) or that the elections has administrative positions and policies, including in Switzerland (Rambert 1889).

2.2 .3The gradual disappearance

Starting in the second half of the 17th century and until the end of the 19th, the draw has not only gradually disappeared from the political practice but it has also been the subject of a decreasing interest in the theory, which is reflected in a literature always less abundant, the judicial jury being a case has hand (cf. infra). While authors like Harrington (1661), Montesquieu (1742) or Rousseau (1762) still saw the drawing as a political procedure standard in their ouvrages24, thinkers and actors of liberal revolutions does the thought more as a serious alternative to other methods of selection, in particular in comparison with the vote (Manin 1997). The main exceptions are to be found in certain North American colonies25 and in the elective process in Great Britain (Kishlansky 1986). There is also a series of proposals made during the French Revolution (Lanthenas 1792 ; Condorcet 1793) that have been studied in detail by Dowlen (2008a).

23There are for the Aragon, just as for the Italian republics, a significant potential for a detailed search given the magnitude of the archives and sources.

24 See in particular the proposal of Rousseau in the framework of his draft constitution for Poland: " Therefore as soon after the death of the King, that is-a-say in the slightest interval that it will be possible and that will be fixed by the law, the Diet of election will be solemnly convened; the names of all the palatal obturators will be placed in competition and it will be fired three lots with all possible precautions for that no fraud corrupted this operation. These three names will be a high voice declared in the assembly, which, in the same meeting and has the plurality of voices, will choose the one she prefers, and it will be proclaimed King of the same day " (Rousseau, "  Considerations on the Government of Poland ", Chapter 14).

25See for example the Fundamental Constitution for the Province of East New Jersey in America in 1683.

101

Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics

2.2 .4The case of the judicial jury

As previously noted, the jury judicial is a remarkable exception was the gradual disappearance of the draw in politics at the turn of the 19th century. The juries have been used, defended, criticisms and reforms many times since their creation, but the principle of the prize draw, applied for the first time in the 18th century, no longer has been abolished and has even been gradually expanded and deepened. The democratic potential of juries has been identified quickly and many theorists of democracy there are interested under the aspects of participation and citizenship, including Jacobsohn (1977), Levine (1984), Constable (1994), Hans & Vidmar (2001) or Abramson (2000) who are the main references of the authors working on the tirage26. In contrast, there are few studies that focus on the principle of drawing. A notable exception to this is a series of articles on the problem of the (non) representativeness of juries who are rather of nature partisane27.

2.2 .5Uses transhistoriques

One of the main features of the drawing is, as we have seen, that he has been " invented " on many times and in a variety of settings in order to reply to the concrete problems of distribution and selection and it seems everything has been likely that the vast majority of these uses has not been documented, in particular in the oral cultures but also because the draw was often a function " daily " on who is not worthy of special attention. An exception concerns some texts nature of anthropological and ethnological. In this context it may be noted the study of Bromberger & Ravis (1987) relating to European usages as well as several studies on the distribution of land by draw, especially in the course of the history of the United States of American contexts.28.

26The book of Abramson is the 13th most cited in the database. The case of the judicial panels is treated in greater detail in chapter 6 (cf. 3.1.1.1 , p. 340).

27See infra, p. 109 and following. See also Kairys & al. (1977) and Fukurai & al. (1991).

28See Bohanon & Coelho (1998) for the United States . Other examples of distribution of land have been studied by Levy (1956) in the case of Greece and by Lobe & Berkes (2004) in the framework of the distribution of human sins in India. For an inventory very comprehensive of the distribution practices of lots by draw, see the work of Boyle (2005) or the shorter of Silverman & Chamlers (2001).

102

3. Explore the potential of the draw

3. Explore the potential of the draw

A number of authors have made a not important analytical in wondering about the potential of the draw as a policy instrument. These texts represent 32.2 per cent of the corpus (31% of the database) and therefore have a central place in the whole of the publications on the draw. Before detailing the development of the period which we are interested, it seems appropriate to mention two exploratory texts veterans which contain an analysis particularly precise and today still relevant in many respects of the potential of drawing. These two books, which are part of the basic references of the contemporary authors, are, on the one hand, the Of sortibus of Thomas Aquinas and on the other hand the of the Nature and Use of Lots of Gataker (1619)29.

The first author of after-war which has presented a theoretical approach of the draw seems to have been Aubert in a text entitled " Luck in Social Affairs " in which he defines the drawing as a chance device, that is to say a " type of institutionalized decision in which the chance is a clear feature " (Aubert 1959, 2). It is interesting to note that this text is probably the prime as treating the exploratory drawing since the publication of the book of Gataker in the direction or a real attention is scope has in defining the nature, characteristics and has the pros and the contre30. This seminal article is remains for a long time the only one to deliver such an exploratory panorama of the draw and of its uses until appear in 1984 two important articles, a prime of Broome (1984) which focused on the justifications for the use of the draw and the second of Goodwin (1984). In his text " Justice by Lottery " on, the latter develops and supports the hypothesis that the drawing is an instrument of social justice which should be " a necessary part of any mechanism of distribution and any theory of justice " (Goodwin 1984, 1). A recovery position and presented extensively in the volume published in 1992 which is the first book devoted entirely to draw exploratoire31 manner. This book was part of a dis29See

Also the second edition (Gataker 1627) which contains many add-ins, and integrated responses has the criticisms made following the publication of the first edition. See also the edition modernized conducted by Boyle (Gataker 2008) that will be infra in the bibliometric analysis.

30 We find this type of reflections under the pen of Montesquieu or Rousseau (or other) but in a manner extremely fast and without any real desire for discussion. The texts such as those of Headlam (1891) or Heisterbergk (1896) certainly leave an important part in the discussion on the printout, but always reported has the example of Athens and without real abstraction or theorising. It is also noted that the article remains long ignored the other sponsors. Of the 16 citations of the text, 50% dating from the last ten years.

31See Goodwin (1992), reprinted in 2005. If one takes into account the two editions, the book is the 5th most cited in the database and the 3e of the corpus.

103

Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics

Myan increasingly wide conducted within the political theory on the themes of the limits of rationality and social justice launched between other by Elster in a series of conferences and work from 198732. In another registry, but also resolutely exploratory, seems in 1996 the first edition of the book of Manin on the principles of representative government which marks the beginning of a discussion on the sortition or any of the less that treaty for the first time since the books of Headlam of the question of the complex relationship between election, pulling, democracy and aristocratie33. These works have been recently widely supplemented by two major monographs in the English language (Dowlen 2008a) and German (Buchstein 2009a)34. In a more global perspective, a series of authors have explored the relationship between drawing and fairness, posing including the question of the conditions of a draw juste35. Finally, other texts have approach the subject of reflexively in is interesting to publications on the draw and especially to those in which are located the proposals for introduction of the pull and indicators36.