The Arabic Language

Further reading
The French colonial policy that led to the present-day linguistic situation is 
discussed in Bidwell (1973) and Gallup (1973); specifically on the language 
ideology of the French, see Hoffman (2008). The older literature on Tunisia and 
Morocco provides an interesting point of comparison with the present-day situa-
tion; since these publications originated in the period just after independence, 
the writers were very much involved in what was happening; see, for example, 

---

274
The Arabic Language
Gallagher (1968), Garmadi (1968) and Maamouri (1973). On linguistic policies in 
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia in the period after independence, see Grandguil
-
laume (1983, 2004) 
On Tunisia: a general study of diglossia in Tunisia is by Talmoudi (1984a); 
Hamzaoui (1970) sketches the Arabicisation of the traffic police in Tunisia; Riguet 
(1984) analyses the Arabicisation of the schools in Tunisia. A recent survey is by 
Daoud (2007). On the position of the tiny Berber minority in Tunisia, see Belgacem 
(2007).
On Morocco: an older study on standard–vernacular diglossia in Moroccan radio 
Arabic is Forkel (1980), which has the same design as Diem’s study on Egyptian 
(and Syro-Lebanese) radio Arabic; on Arabicisation in Morocco see Ennaji (2002, 
2005); on Moroccan Arabic–French code-switching, see Ziamari (2007); a personal 
view about the language question in Morocco is expressed by Laroui (2011).
On Algeria: a recent survey with an extensive bibliography is by Benrabah 
(2007); a personal view on the role of French as the only way towards modernity 
in Algeria is expressed by Benmayouf (2009).
On Lebanon: Haddad (1970) deals with the contacts between Maronites and 
Western Europe in the seventeenth century; on the linguistic situation in Lebanon 
after independence, some older publications (such as Abou 1961, 1962) are avail
-
able, which are interesting from an historical point of view; the mixing of dialect 
and standard Arabic in radio programmes is analysed by Al Batal (2002).
Abbassi (1977) includes a sketch of the syntactic constraints in Franco-Arabe; 
for an older study on the use of Franco-Arabe among students, see Ounali (1970). 
On the variety of French spoken in North Africa during the colonial period, see 
Lanly (1970). On French–Arabic code-switching, see Bentahila and Davies (1983). 
On French loanwords in Moroccan Arabic, see Heath (1989), with extensive lists of 
borrowed words; on Arabic–French linguistic contacts in general, see Benzakour 
et al
. (2000). On French loanwords in the Algerian vernacular, see Hadj-Sadok 
(1955). Benmayouf (2008) analyses French–Arabic hybrid formations in Algeria.
The Berber literary tradition is dealt with by van den Boogert (1997). On Berber 
substratal influence, see Chapter 8. The influence of Arabic in Berber is dealt with 
by Aguadé and Behnstedt (2006). The 
Dahir berbère 
is analysed by Hart (1997) and 
Hoffman (2010). On the Berber question in Morocco and Algeria, see Willis (2012: 
203–30). Information about the Tifinagh script is in Elghamis (2011), who deals 
with its use for the writing of Touareg in Niger; on the introduction of Tifinagh
 
as 
the writing system for Amazigh in Morocco, see Pouessel (2008).
In this chapter we have dealt exclusively with the situation in North Africa 
and Lebanon, and with Arabic–French and Arabic–Tamazight bilingualism. These 
are not the only cases of bilingualism in the Arabic-speaking world. We have seen 
that English is encroaching on some of the domains of French in Tunisia and 
perhaps in Lebanon; on Arabic–English code-switching, see Atawneh (1992). It is 
obvious that English loanwords are becoming more and more important. For an 

---

Bilingualism 
275
early case study of English loanwords in the dialect of al-Ḥasā (Saudi Arabia), see 
Smeaton (1973). On English and Ivrit loanwords in Palestinian Arabic, see Amara 
and Mar’i (1986).
Other situations of bilingualism occur in the linguistic enclaves, for example, 
Arabic–Uzbek–Tajik trilingualism in Uzbekistan (see Chapter 15, p. 284) and 
Arabic–Turkish–Kurdish trilingualism in Anatolia (see Chapter 15, p. 281). For 
Arabic–Ivrit bilingualism in the state of Israel, see Amara (1999). The situation of 
Arabic in the migration will be dealt with in Chapter 15, pp. 290–6 with discussion 
of code-switching.

---