Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

Literary & Scientific Development in Muslim Spain
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Centuries later, Ibn Khaldun wrote that the arts of singing and music are concerned with the setting of poems to music. Moreover, he includes music among the sciences. One of the reasons he gives for Muslim concern with singing and music is the fear of confounding Qur’anic cantilation, which has certain fixed rules not allowing for melodies. In addition, the recitation of the Qur’an is an occasion of reverence and awe incompatible with the pleasure and amusement produced by singing and music. However, a beautiful voice is highly desirable for the recitation of the Qur’an in addition to proper articulation and enunciation of letters.
In spite of legal restrictions on and religious ambivalence, music and signing became part and parcel of entertainment at all levels of society. They were cultivated widely in both the Eastern and Western Muslim world. War, battle, and love songs were sung and were accepted, however grudgingly, by the religious scholars. Music, singing and dancing became common features at festivals, weddings, births, and circumcisions. Even the spiritual effects of music were widely recognized among the mystics, who came to accept music as an elixir and a means to ecstasy. The great Egyptian mystic, Dhu-I-Nun says :Listening (al- sama’) is a divine influence which stirs the heart to see Allah; those who listen to it spiritually attain to Allah and those who listen to it sensually fall into heresy.
Rulers in both East and West vied for the best talents in these areas, and musicians, singers and dancers - male and female became an integral part of court entourage. They had great passion for music and singing, patronized them, and encouraged their study. It is perhaps for these reasons and out of a natural attraction to music and singing that the study of music was allowed at the practical and theoretical levels. There emerged an abundant literature which dealt with the various aspects of music and singing and its leading figures. The lexicographer al-Khalil b. Ahmad (d.791) is credited with two works, the Kitab al-nagham (The Book of Notes) and the Kitab aliqa (The Book of Rhythm). The philosopher al-Kindi wrote seven treatises on anangement of notes, rhythm, composition, introduction to the art of music, art of lute, and so forth. He was followed by his able pupil al-Sarakhsi, who is credited with a number of treatises.
The great philosopher al-Farabi was an able instrumentalist as well as theorist of music. He was able to pay the lute in such a manner as to cast his hearers into a fit of laughter or draw tears from their eves. He wrote three works on music. These men were followed

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by al-Razi. Ibn Sina, the Brethren of Purity, and others who considered music one of the sciences and wrote numerous works about it. In addition, Abu Faraj al-ispahani wrote his famous Book of Songs in twenty-one volumes which reached al-Andalus before its circulation in the East. Although these authors were inspired by Greek music as learned in translation, they were also concerned with the various musical instruments. All of these preoccupations became known to the Andalusians, who. in turn, emulated and assimilated the musical lore of the East. Moreover, leading Eastern instrumentalist, singers, and dancers were known to the Andalusians. There was the Makkhan Siyyat (d.785), a famous singer and lute player, who left an array of pupils - Ibrahim and Ishaq al-Mawsili, Ibn Jami. al-Hakam al-Wadi (d.800) all of whom were accomplished singers and musicians. By and large the musical traditions of the East passed on to al-Andalus and became part of the culture inspite of the avowed conservatism and protest of the religious scholars. The Andalusians loved poetry, songs, music, and dancing. These arts suited their temperament and permeated their lives.
As among the Abbasids in the East, the Andalusian rulers introduced singers, musicians, and dancers into their courts. At first, they imported both male and female singers and dancers from the East. The Eastern singers ’Alwan and Zarqun entered al-Andalus during the reign of the emir al- Hakim I and were followed by others. Among the female singers was Fazl al-Medina. originally from alAndalus who received her musical training in Baghdad and Medina. The song stress Qamar was brought from Baghdad and became famous for composing melodies at the court of Sex ille.
Ziryab
But the most important emigre was ’AM Ibn Nafi’, known as Ziryab (789-857). He was probably a client (Mawla) who was brought up and educated in Baghdad. According to Ibn ’Abd Rabbihi, he was a black slave of the famous musician Ibrahim alMawsili, the leading musician of the da>, who trained him in the arts of music and singing. He was so gifted that his special talents attracted the attention of the caliph was so pleased that his master became jealous and advised Ziryab in unmistakable terms either to leave the country immediately and settle in a distant land or to remain and suffer anguish and enmity. The story has an element of exaggeration, and Ziryab’s departure may have been promoted by the unsettled conditions during the civil wars between the brothers al-
Litcrnn/ & Scientific Development in Muslim Spain Am in (808-813) and al-Ma’mun (813-833) At any rate, he left for North Africa, where he spent some time in Qayrawan at the court of the Aghlabid ruler Ziyadat Allah I (816-837). Here Ziryab is said to have incurred the displeasure of the ruler, to have been whipped and given three days to leave the country. However, the displeasure may have been caused by Ziryab’s decision to go to al-Andalus at the invitation of al-Hakam.
Ziryab travelled with his family to Algeciras and had reached al-Andalus in 822 when his patron-to-be died. However, he was received by a delgf ation sem by the new emir Abdur Rahman II. His arrival coincided with the inauguration of this ruler, who bestowed a furnished mansion and expensive gifts. He also gave Ziryab a salary of 200 dinars per* month, and 20 dinars to each of his four sons, a bonus of 3,000 dinars a year, and 500 to 1,000 dinars for special religious festivals. Ziryab’s influence at the court grew rapidly, and he was soon one of the ruler’s favourites. Ziryab became the boon-companion of his patron, and introduced new fashions in hair styles, culinary arts, table etiquette, and dresses for every season and occasion. However, Ziryab’s greatest talent lay in singing, playing the lute, and instructing and training students. He is credited with knowing one thousand songs from memory. He composed numerous songs and claimed that the (spirits) jinn and inspired them at night. As an instrumentalist, he excelled at the Ud (lute), which he improved by adding a fifth string The colour of the string was red, representing the soul, and was placed between the second and third strings. He also used plectras which were made of eagles, talons rather than those hitherto made of less durable wood; this innovation assured longer life to the strings and improved the tone.
Perhaps Ziryab’s greatest contribution to the art of music was in the field of instruction. He founded a conservatory of music in Cordova, the first of its kind. He introduced a curriculum consisting of three stages: first, the study of rhythm, meter, and words of songs taught to the accompaniment of musical instruments: second, the mastery of melody: and third, an introduction to za’idjh (gloss). He had an ingenious method of training singers. He wSuld have the student sit down on a round cushion and make him use the full power of his voice. If he found that the voice of the student was weak, he would tie a turban around the waist to increase the voice. If the student stammered or clenched his teeth, Ziryab would put in his mouth a small piece of wood in order to expand his jaws, and he

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would then order him to utter certain words, \\hich if done clearly would gain admission for the student. It \vas in this conservatory that a great number of students, including his concubine Mut’ah and his daughter Hamdunah, were trained who became famous for their singing, dancing, and musical compositions.”^
Ziryab’s position was so high that he was able to accumulate a fortune valued at some 300.000 dinars in addition to several villages that were given to him in fief. His affluence aroused the resentment of poets and religious men alike, for different reasons. This notwithstanding, his influence on the taste of Cordova was felt strongly and spread to the capital cities of the provinces and eventually to North Africa.