States 0-5b have been reproduced from Bond (2011) and states 5c to 10 have been adapted from Prescott and Turner (2010).
State 0 – Pre-European intact Grey Box woodland
Please note there are no surviving examples of Grey Box Grassy Woodland in this Pre-European intact state.
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Species richness
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Greater than 100 species (no defined area)
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Indicator species
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Structural diversity
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In addition to E microcarpa overstorey:
scattered small trees and / or large shrubs less than 10% cover.
mid-storey of small shrubs, scattered in groves, or small patches.
Ground layer diverse range of largely perennial herbaceous plants and geophytes (including lilies, daisies and orchids)
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Regeneration
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All tree age classes present
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Weeds
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No weeds present
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Tree health & habitat
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Healthy canopy, large trees with hollows
In heavier more fertile soils > 60 cm DBH, 25 m tall, single trunk (Boomsma 1981), in skeletal soils, stunted mallee form
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Tree density
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Lower than current
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Grazing pressure
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Intermittent grazing by native animals
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Fire history
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Semi-regular natural bushfire
possible deliberate burning by Aboriginal People
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Nutrients
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No nutrient inputs
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Tree cutting
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No
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5.4.1.State 1 - Remnant intact woodland
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Species richness
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Greater than 80 species (no defined area)
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Indicator species
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Presence of rare herbaceous species e.g. Dianella longifolia, Eryngium rostratum, Glycine tabacina,
Presence of grazing sensitive species (e.g. Themeda triandra, Pultenaea largiflorens)
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Structural diversity
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In addition to open E microcarpa overstorey:
Very open mid-layer of shrubs, scattered or small patches.
Ground layer diverse range of species dominated by native grasses with geophytes / wildflowers between the grasses.
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Ground cover
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No or little disturbance to soil crust
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Regeneration
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Mix of original and regrowth trees
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Weeds
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Minor grass weeds such as Briza sp. present (Hurren et al. 2007 cited in Prescott and Turner 2010). less than 10% cover of weeds in the understorey mainly annual grasses but perhaps with a trace of bulbous weeds
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Tree health & habitat
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Healthy canopy, many younger shorter trees, sometimes coppiced, fewer trees with hollows
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Tree density
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Trees 20-30 m apart
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Grazing pressure
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Loss of native herbivores some grazing pressure from feral herbivores
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Fire history
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Possible reduced frequency of natural bushfire
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Nutrients
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No nutrient inputs
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Tree cutting
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Historic timber cutting and ring-barking
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5.4.2.State 2 – Woodland impacted by inappropriate fire events
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Species richness
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Indicator species
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Presence of senescent small trees such as Acacia pycnantha
Loss of fire sensitive species such as some orchids
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Structural diversity
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Dense mid-storey layer with senescent growth of mid-storey shrubs
Increase in thatch (dead grass material) within the tussock grasses – more than 70% of the biomass of most native tussocks is thatch
Reduced density of native perennial grasses
Reduced inter-tussock spaces
Loss of vigour or abundance in inter-tussock species.
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Ground cover
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Large amounts of woody debris, twigs and leaves.
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Tree health & habitat
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Lack of fire scars
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Fire history
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Reduced frequency of fire
| 5.4.3.State 3a – Woodland with grazing impacts, but no / little added fertiliser & State 3b – Woodland with grazing impacts and with nutrient inputs
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State 3a
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State 3b
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Species richness
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Reasonable
Approximately 30-40+ native species (no defined area)
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Reduced
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Indicator species
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Loss of grazing sensitive species
Increase in grazing resistant species
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Loss of all palatable species
High loss of native forbs
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Structural diversity
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(Generally density and abundance is lower than state 1)
Mature over-storey intact and open
Very open mid-layer of shrubs (possible loss of shrub layer)
Ground layer has the highest cover of the 3 layers but is less than 30% cover
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Further thinning of mid and ground strata
No shrub layer
Loss of inter-tussock spaces
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Ground cover
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Loss of lichens and mosses, minor soil compaction and or disturbance and increase in bare ground
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Soil disturbance /
compacted resulting in the loss of water filtration
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Regeneration
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Limited regeneration of trees, shrubs
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Very little regeneration of trees and shrubs
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Weeds
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Increase in herbaceous (including bulbs) and grassy weeds.
Up to 50% cover of annual exotic grass.
Some woody weeds may be present
Perennial exotic grasses
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Around 80%+ exotic cover, particularly clovers and medics from pasture improvement phase, potentially high bulbous weed cover to around 90%+.
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Grazing pressure
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Stock grazing
Grazing by feral herbivores
Excessive grazing by native herbivores
Evidence of grazing and trampling
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Stock grazing regular and in high densities
Grazing by feral herbivores
Excessive grazing by native herbivores
Evidence of grazing and trampling
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Nutrients
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Minor nutrient increase from manure
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Addition of fertilizer
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Species richness
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Low
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Indicator species
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Pasture species – Yorkshire Fog, Rye Grass, Barley Grass, Sweet Vernal Grass
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Structural diversity
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Specimen trees may remain
Loss of shrub layer
Serious degradation of the ground layer
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Ground cover
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Bare soil leads to soil erosion and loss of stored seed bank
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Regeneration
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No regeneration of shrubs and trees
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Weeds
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Pasture present – Yorkshire Fog, Rye Grass, Barley Grass, Sweet Vernal Grass
Woody weeds as for State 5 may be present but suppressed by grazing
Ground stratum dominated by pasture grasses and herbs
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Tree health & habitat
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Tree dieback
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Tree density
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Specimen trees
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Grazing pressure
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Stock grazing regular and in high densities
Grazing by feral herbivores
Excessive grazing by native herbivores
Evidence of grazing and trampling
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Nutrients
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Addition of fertilizer
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5.4.5.State 5a – Woodland impacted by neglect – recoverable & State 5b – Woodland impacted by neglect after disturbance –recoverable?
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State 5a
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State 5b
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Species richness
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Native species still present eg Austrostipa and Austrodanthonia
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Low
Very low native forb diversity
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Indicator species
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Woody weeds Olive Olea europaea, Hawthorn Crataegus spp. and Buckthorn Rhamnus alaternus feature as over-storey
Mid-storey and understorey weed species include Olea europaeus, Boneseed Chrysanthemoides monilifera, Dog Rose Rosa canina, Cotton-Bush Gomphocarpus rotundifolia, Bridal Creeper Asparagus asparagoides, South African Daisy Senecio pterophorus, Gorse Ulex europaeus, and Blackberry Rubus spp
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Structural diversity
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Mature trees may still exist
closed mid-storey of weeds
Almost no native shrub layer
very low native forb diversity, loss of native shrub layer, loss of inter-tussock spaces
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Mid and ground layers are dominated by exotic species
Loss of native shrub layer
Loss of inter-tussock spaces,
Excessive dead thatch biomass ( up to 150 mm of thatch)
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Ground cover
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No microphytic crust
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Regeneration
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Very little recruitment of trees, shrubs and grasses
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Very little recruitment of trees, shrubs and grasses
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Weeds
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Mature woody weeds
Possible presence of exotic pasture species such as clover, medics.
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Woody weeds, herbaceous weeds including annuals and bulbs, annual and perennial grass weeds
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Tree health & habitat
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Grey Box trees still present but senescing
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Grazing pressure
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May have a history of heavy grazing
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Nutrients
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No added nutrients
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Fertilizer added or heavy grazing
| 5.4.6.State 5c – Woodland impacted by neglect / tree death and State 5d – Woodland impacted by neglect / tree death after disturbance with nutrients
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State 5c and 5d
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State 5d
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Species richness
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Low
Very low native forb diversity
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Indicator species
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Woody weeds Olive Olea europaea, Hawthorn Crataegus spp. and Buckthorn Rhamnus alaternus feature as over-storey
Mid-storey and understorey weed species include Olea europaeus, Boneseed Chrysanthemoides monilifera, Dog Rose Rosa canina, Cotton-Bush Gomphocarpus rotundifolia, Bridal Creeper Asparagus asparagoides, South African Daisy Senecio pterophorus, Gorse Ulex europaeus, and Blackberry Rubus spp
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Structural diversity
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Tree strata has disappeared
Mid and ground layers are dominated by exotic species
Loss of native shrub layer
Loss of inter-tussock spaces,
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Ground cover
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Regeneration
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Very little recruitment of trees, shrubs and grasses
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Weeds
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Woody weeds, herbaceous weeds including annuals and bulbs, annual and perennial grass weeds
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Tree health & habitat
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Trees absent
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Tree density
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Grazing pressure
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May have a history of heavy grazing
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Fire history
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Nutrients
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Fertilizer added or heavy grazing
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Tree cutting
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5.4.7.State 6 – Woodland impacted by Phytophthora root fungus
This State is impacted by presence of Phytophthora root fungus and may come from any other state within the model as a result of Phytophthora infection. As such the overall appearance of a Phytophthora infected community will differ depending on the previous State.
From State 1 Remnant intact woodland
The overall characteristics of this state are unknown. It is however likely that species sensitive to the Phytophthora root fungus would die out or at least diminish in abundance or distribution. Species not sensitive to the affect of Phytophthora would be expected to remain and / or new species may encroach into the system.
Current understanding predicts that a range of species, particularly members of the Proteaceae and Pea Families would be affected by Phytophthora and die out of the community.
From other States
This community would have similar characteristics to its former State plus the additional impact reducing the abundance of Phytophthora sensitive species.
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Species richness
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Depends on previous state
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Indicator species
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Loss of Phytophthora susceptible species particularly members of the Proteaceae and Pea Families
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Structural diversity
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Depends on previous state
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Ground cover
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Depends on previous state
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Regeneration
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Depends on previous state
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Weeds
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Depends on previous state
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Tree health & habitat
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Depends on previous state
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Tree density
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Depends on previous state
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Grazing pressure
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Depends on previous state
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Fire history
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Depends on previous state
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Nutrients
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Depends on previous state
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Tree cutting
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Depends on previous state
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5.4.8.State 7 – Woodland replaced by pasture, without trees
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Species richness
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Very Low
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Indicator species
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Pasture species – Yorkshire Fog, Rye Grass, Barley Grass, Sweet Vernal Grass
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Structural diversity
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No tree layer
Loss of native shrub layer
Serious degradation of the ground layer
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Ground cover
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Around 90%+ exotic cover, potentially high bulbous weed cover
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Regeneration
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No regeneration of shrubs and trees
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Weeds
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Pasture present – Yorkshire Fog, Rye Grass, Barley Grass, Sweet Vernal Grass
Woody weeds as for State 5 may be present but suppressed by grazing
Ground stratum dominated by pasture grasses and herbs
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Tree health & habitat
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Tree density
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Grazing pressure
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Stock grazing regular and in high densities
Grazing by feral herbivores
Excessive grazing by native herbivores
Evidence of grazing and trampling
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Fire history
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Nutrients
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Addition of fertilizer, soil biota fundamentally changed
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Tree cutting
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| 5.4.9.State 8 – Woodland lost through alienation
In this State, all plant strata have been removed in order to replace the land with a range of other systems, particularly semi-urban or peri-urban housing, lifestyle blocks, hobby farms, and horse paddocks, but also including orchards (olives), and viticulture.
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Species richness
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Nil
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Tree health & habitat
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Stumps may be present
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5.4.10.State 9 – Woodland reconstructed
This is an area which used to be E. microcarpa woodland with a grassy and herbaceous understorey, but realistically nearly all vestiges of the original vegetation have been removed through a variety of management actions. As such it is likely to have an altered higher nutrient content and a changed microbial and fungal mix in the soil.
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Species richness
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Generally low (<20 species)
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Indicator species
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dominated by species for which seed or other propagules are easy to collect in volume and seedlings are easy to grow
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Structural diversity
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Dominated by trees and shrubs, often at higher densities than naturally occurs
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Ground cover
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Depends on previous State, but usually grassy and herbaceous weeds are prevalent
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Regeneration
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Often only one age class present
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Weeds
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Generally ground stratum dominated by introduced grasses and herbs
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Tree density
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Generally high
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Grazing pressure
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Generally no grazing pressure
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Nutrients
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Addition of fertilizer, soil biota fundamentally changed
| 5.4.11.State 10 – Woodland impacted by climate change
All States can transition to a state affected by climate change. The characteristics of this state cannot be known, but will reflect a combination of the previous land management impacts as well as those connected with climate chance, only some of which can be described here.
A suite of native species are expected to remain. A range of species are also expected to be affected by climate change and may reduce in number or disappear from the system. Species with an ability to grow and reproduce under hotter temperatures, with less winter rain and more summer rain are more likely to persist. Native tussock grasses may increase. Some weeds may die out but these are likely to be replaced by other weed species. Some native species may encroach into the system from other habitats.
Other impacts associated with changes to biological processes, de-synchronisation of events, food-web interactions etc, are likely to occur but the resultant changes to the system are unknown.
5.4.12.State 11 – Woodland best-option conservation surrogate
This State represents land managed for conservation and / or other impacted systems that have been more recently the focus for conservation management. These communities cannot return to the State 1 condition because a change has occurred (e.g. climate change, salinity, Phytophthora) for which there is no known remediation, hence can be currently considered permanent.
Such effects cannot be ameliorated by any known actions on site. These states can, and should however, be managed for conservation but the resulting suite of species will be different or reduced from those in State 1, and will depend on site history.
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These areas are being managed for conservation
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The community has the basic structure and a range of native species remain. Most importantly, they have had no / little active input of fertilisers or alien pasture species. It is acknowledged that it would be very difficult to restore to State 1, within time scale used. They can arise from a number of states including State 1 through State 2 or State 3a, and State 6 and State 10.
State indicators -
Evidence of conservation management
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Woody weed control, perennial exotic grass control
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