Trnavská univerzita V Trnave Fakulta zdravotníctva a sociálnej práce Sprachkompetenz in der Wissenschaft Language Competence in the Science

FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING, FACILITATION AND POSITIVE EMOTIONS

ĽUBICA VAREČKOVÁ,

Slovakia, University of St. Cyril and Methodius, Trnava

E-Mail: [e-mail]

Abstract

Being a permanent professional, a foreign language teacher, requires further improvement of foreign language skills and competencies, backed by psychology especially positive psychology. Possibility of being more experienced and skilful at languages partly widens the potential of being a teacher-facilitator. For some adults is beating the barriers becoming incredibly difficult, therefore for foreign language teachers or lecturers is facilitating, positive motivation and positive emotion a tool, that enables, provokes and sets the course with direct teaching activities.

Key words:

Foreign language acquisition. Facilitation. Positive emotions. Motivation. Changes in thinking.

Quality of life and positive psychology
Quality of life is a very complex phenomenon that can be seen and understood from many points of view. Positive psychology is aimed at overall psychological "well-being" of a person or a group of people through a deep interest in positive psychological phenomena, connected with good mental functioning of a person mainly associated with long-lasting stress, and not only the productivity of a person, but also the efficiency of person’s intellectual work, which is linked with increasing interest in physical and mental health of a person in the society.

Czikszentmihali and Seligman (2000) studied sources of life power to exist, and Seligman (2002) connects positive psychology with a task to build and support the best life qualities of a person.

Mareš (2002) sets the goal of positive psychology in the care for healthy psychological development of an individual, quality of his social life, gradual personality maturing with a trend towards wisdom and leading the meaningful life.

The current positive psychology addresses issues of hope, joy, reconciliation, as well as twelve different phenomena of positive psychology important for a human being and its development: empathy and altruism, love, friendship, wisdom, moral motivation, resilience, self-esteem, emotions that help to overcome difficulties, further peak experiences such as flow, gratitude, spirituality and well-being (Křivohlavý, 2004).

The definition of what is positive and what is negative depends on what kind of perspective we choose, what are our emotional feelings as well as connection of personality and the personal predispositions.

Theories of personality
The first definition of personality was given by Boethius, born in 500, where he states that "A person is an individual substance of rational nature" (Ručková, 2011), further Allport analysed about fifty other definitions of personality and at present there are about fifteen representative concepts of personality, which depend on perception of personality as such, and how personality predispositions predetermine the quality of coping. (Ručková, 2011)

Positive psychology and humanistic approach in teaching process are very close to each other because they are aimed at mental processes of a person, their further development together with hidden but also potential abilities, in the case the individual is allowed of spontaneous, authentic and creative responses (Ručková, 2011).

The potential of each individual is connected with the importance and capability of own growth and actualization, bound with the essence of humanistic psychology and the faith in initial goodness, and that mental and social problems deepen in deviations of natural character.

C.R. Rogers proposed a new theory of personality, with a central concept of " self ", emphasizing the unity and uniqueness of each person.

C.R. Rogers proposed a new approach to counselling - client or person focused therapy, further known as Client - Centred Counselling and Client – Centred Psychotherapy. This therapy, the non - directive and non - manipulative psychotherapy supports empathy and accepts a client, and is aimed at a client "as he is" (in Atkinson, 2003).

Rogers' approach tries to create a safe and trustworthy relation and suitable environment with a client, allowing him free talking about the survivals, experiences and opinions. The basic concept of humanistic psychology, which respects the growth of a person, diversity of his approaches, openness to the accepted methods and interest in exploring new aspects of his behaviour namely include:

• 
  self-actualization, tendency of own growth and self-improvement,
  
• 
  self-development of personal creative potential and
  
• 
  motivation for behaviour, related to the needs which appear when occur a lack of something
  

Maslow's theory of motivation, together with the hierarchy of needs, places own personal potential utilization, self-fulfilment and self-realization in the highest position. At present, principles of humanistic psychology and Rogers' client-centred approach are not any more used as a therapeutic procedure, but also are used in the sphere of healthcare, education, personnel management etc. (Maslow, 1970).
Student-centred approach
The Rogers´ thought, that each individual is a carrier of a huge source of self-understanding, has the ability to change the self-acceptance and this type of process may become prior in foreign language teaching.

This understanding can serve as a source of basic attitude and behaviour controlled by a person himself. These sources can be met only if three conditions that allow occurrence of appropriate atmosphere for personal growth and support arise.

These conditions can be applied in the relationships of a therapist and a client, a parent and a child, superiors and subordinates, teachers and students etc.
Three conditions of appropriate atmosphere are as follows:

1. 
   Congruence – (authenticity, spontaneity)
   

If the therapist is more himself in the relationship with a client, and does not super ordinate his professionalism, then there is greater likelihood that the client will change himself and will grow in a constructive way.

At educational environment is congruence manifested in teacher´s authenticity, his truthfulness, openness and transparency in all what is happening and is associated with teaching process. Creating of creative atmosphere gives the opportunity to express feelings and experience without fear, it leads to spontaneity, independence, and creativity. Congruent relationship of teachers and students create a basis for positive influence in education.

2. 
   Acceptance - (care, respect)
   

The therapist should experience both positive and acceptable attitude toward all, who and what the client at the moment is. The therapist lets the client in what is undergoing - fear, confusion, sadness, love, anger, pride. Then can only occur a change or therapeutic movement.

At school, where the teacher positively accepts students in a way who they are, without prejudice (without imposing conditions, setting targets, with the acceptance of their real language competences, etc.), the acceptance is manifested in his belief that every student can be better, more successful, smarter, so through the study can acquire new knowledge, strengthen it and get better.

3. 
   Empathy - (empathic understanding)
   

The therapist sees, takes into account feelings the client is experiencing, and gives him clear understanding. It's a kind of sensitive and active listening.

If the teacher empathizes, sees and understands the world from the student´s perspective, then is also able to understand various manifestations of students´ thoughts, behaviour can get better, is able to empathize with possible difficulties and overall survival, so the teacher can understand the students´ needs, is able to unblock fear and anxiety and can lead him to released and creative forces.

The teacher should focus not only on what the student knows, but also what and how the student feels and survives, and through the open discussion shows interest in his needs, views and opinions.
Focusing on the individual, based on Rogers(1983) and Jůva (in Ručková, 2011), the aim of the process lies in the full and multifaceted development, both in the sphere of education as well as in the sphere of upbringing, together with formation of active and creative relationship to reality.

Ručková (2011) says that for gaining success is necessary to develop certain physical and mental conditions of the individual. Physical conditions relate to the overall physical fitness, health, exercise flexibility and anatomic skeleton, but further are very important also the requirements for sensitivity of the sense organs, coordination and motor skills.

All biologically conditioned requirements are significant both in the process of upbringing as well as in the sphere of education.

Moreover the psychological assumptions can predetermine further educational direction /also with adults) with enhancing their knowledge, skills and habits, mainly focusing on the skills and talents, that are necessary for particular activities e.g. with language acquisition - listening, speaking, writing, etc..

Foreign language teachers should share optimistic perspectives with students (adults included), create positive atmosphere and allow some changes. When a person is accepted and valued in the society or droup, then the person tends to have more caring attitude towards himself, as well as to the "duties" bound with work or task, in our case during foreign language teaching.
Foreign language communication
Passive language learning is related to the knowledge of language, but for active communication are necessary skills. Acquisition of foreign language competences cannot be only limited by the learning process, but must be understood as an open life-long process. It is irrelevant which level of language competence the student at the moment reaches, but important is ensuring his further smooth and continuous development of communication skills or possibilities, resembling or imitating real communication and using a foreign language in everyday or working life situations that the learner can encounter, and when the foreign language becomes a source for complementing the knowledge.

Expanding vocabulary must be implemented in real communication. Important is encouraging and leading learners to express themselves and give immediate reactions. Immediate reactions are further bound with discussions, and also giving arguments based on a topic. A foreign language communication, is a two-way communication, so it requires feedback. It is very important to praise and evaluate even a partial success and effort to express some ideas.

Criticism is also important, especially constructive criticism, which is aimed at drawing the attention to information misuse or explaining how to correct a mistake. It is necessary to give a feedback so the criticism in the foreign language teaching can be used. The verbal appraisal and criticism may be expressed and highlighted by informal means such as facial expressions, smile, tone of voice, gestures.

Effective communication is essential in our daily lives, whether in mother tongue or in a foreign language. The ability of effective communication however means, being able to learn, listen, write, understand, speak and also give presentation in a foreign language. Eligibility of active listening, listening to each other, giving signals on participation, showing the interest, expressing emotions, are fundamental attributes when people communicate with each other, the same even among students and teachers.

Recent development highlights acute need for accurate interpersonal and interactive communication. The point is that interactive communication runs in real time and provides immediate response to direct communication with other person or group of people who are connected with the immediate responses and mutual exchange of information.

• How to bring to active communication in a foreign language?

• Is the facilitative approach really helpful?
Teacher facilitator
A teacher with these specific type of approach can become a facilitator (facilitare from original Latin word, with meanings of lightness, agility, smoothness, willingness, friendliness, kindness, affection, friendliness).

In English the word means accompanying, making things easier.

Psychological dictionary of Hartl, Hartlová, (2004) defines facilitator as a leader or teacher who retreats from its dominant position, promotes interaction in a group, develops moral teachings, takes the role of a moderator in the group with belief that active learning is more effective.

Vašutová J. (2002) states that the role of the facilitator is associated with learning support, where a key factor is considered a specific relationship of a teacher and students, often expressed in the ability and willingness of informal communication, in created friendly atmosphere suitable for mutual openness and ability to open up and communicate.

The role of a teacher – facilitator is connected with an adequate evaluation of students needs and abilities, followed by determination of adequate methods and techniques for ensuring the continuous improvement in learning basics and essential skills, engagement of students and allowing them to make interconnection across disciplines.

Each person has a need to be listened by somebody and based on the content be responded. If we tend to understand learning a foreign language via Rogers view, then communication can become more and more effective. Learning is an open lifelong process, so patience, used effort and seeking of adequate order of steps towards effective communication can enrich both parts - teachers and students.

Contribution of facilitator in the foreign language acquisition is mainly aimed at the change of relationship between teachers and learners - from asymmetric to symmetric model where those who are learning are more and more drawn into the process and active participation in teaching. The teacher in this case is not the only and the absolutely dominant one, but is being led to significant changes. The teacher is a supporter or creator of positive atmosphere so that the student feels well and confident in a group, feels confidence to the teacher, feels confidence to the group and to himself with a very clear intention - I want to learn.

The atmosphere with enhanced mutual interaction and acceptance supports communication also of weaker individuals, so the teacher, based on the situation and conditions, has the possibility to modify the objectives and democratically respect students´ requirements. But it does not mean that he resigns the management process.

The teacher supports and respects the values of self-knowledge, self-esteem, self-image, but further also promotes peer review in a group, chooses topics closer to the student etc. It is essential that the teacher rejects memorization but leads to various forms of acquisition and subsequent presentation of knowledge, thereby enhance intrinsic motivation to learn through the open atmosphere in the group, the need for feedback, discussion, exchange of opinion, arguments are supportive and effective methods of expressing own opinions, approaches and attitudes in a foreign language.

Humanistic approach is anchored in trust in the strengths and abilities of a student, the student's acceptance as a personality, emphasizing the need for own activities, self-education, self-esteem, self-regulation and self-realization of students and teacher facilitator. All these attributes are necessary for development of foreign language competences.

Creative, positive, triggering atmosphere breaks barriers, the teacher-facilitator accompanies, supports and encourages students, participates in the responsibility for the learning process and what is important leads students to continuous and partial acquisition of foreign language knowledge and skills, that are only able to be achieved through systematic internally motivated process and self-discipline. The centre is the one who is learning - a student.
Conclusion
In summary, we can state that creative, positively guided, congruent and empathic approach is suitable for the teacher who is permanently identified with the described approach and through that encourages easier, simpler and positive acquisition and dissemination of knowledge and experience of each individual.

Rogers was concerned with the motivation and student´s self rather than with how the student should be taught, but the student ,in his self, remains an innate capacity for growth, for self-actualization, which is connected with freeing of the process that allows self-initiation and learning which is often faster, and more thorough.

Some attempts indicate that for some teachers it is difficult to change their attitudes, to share their power and responsibility and to trust the intrinsic motivation of their students to learn but the history also indicates that, where teachers change their attitudes, the student’s motivation, leanings and behaviour is improved.

Through the standard methodological process we want to innovate methods of foreign languages teachers, their work among adult students, with subjective perceive of their work and tasks, with their expectations and students´ achievements, and point out the improvement and shift in the process of foreign language acquisition.

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PHYSICAL DISABILITY AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE MARITAL RELATIONSHIP
KLAUDIA VIDOVÁ, MIRIAM SLANÁ

Slovakia, Trnava University in Trnava,

E-Mail: [e-mail]; [e-mail]

Abstract

This paper describes the marital relationship between a disabled and a non-disabled person, it presents various aspects of care and intimacy and focuses on the social context of disability in marriage. We are introducing the methodological research plan that will be implemented in the coming months as part of the dissertation and in addition we present several important research findings of the pilot study within the thesis.

Key words:

Disability Marriage. Gender. Care.

In general, we can say that marriage is an important social institution that unites two people in the marriage bond, and splices them to living together, based on the promise to honour one another in sickness and in health. According to American psychiatrist John S. Rolland (1994), dealing with the impact of different diseases on marriage, is ,,in sickness and in health” the most important part of marriage vows, but very few people during a wedding have an idea of what life with a disease or disability really means.

Permanent disability is usually seen as negative and difficult life situation, which in addition to the person with disability touches their whole family. We can state that the issue of primary families of people with disabilities, respectively families with a child with a disability is frequently discussed, whether in the context of social work or psychology, or in the case of secondary families of people with disabilities, originated from the marriage, the literature still does not reveal much.

In our view, marriage plays a very important role in the context of disability, and this for several reasons. In the case of congenital disability or disability arising at the time before the establishing of marriage, exactly the secondary family and in particular the spouse replace the primary family, not only in the provision of appropriate assistance, but also in allowing a relatively independent life; and in case of disability incurred in the marriage is the spouse usually the closest person, who, according to several authors, (Blais – Boisvert, 2005; Mann – Dieppe, 2006; Esmail – Munro - Gibson, 2007; Emslie et al., 2009) is the main source of social support and companionship and following Warner and Kelley-Moore (2010) he / she is in addition the central person in social network, that connects the person with disability with other people and with social institutions. Simultaneously, the already carried out researches have shown that the spouse is the person who experiences the most noticeable impact of disability.

Reflecting on the effects of physical disability on the marriage from a psychological point of view mainly the time of the beginning of the disability plays the most important role. In the case of marriages, respectively partnerships incurred despite already existing disability of one partner, the situation usually requires a reassessment of the situation and acceptance of disability prior to the inception of a relationship. Taking into account that the relationship arises in terms of physical limits and restrictions, the partners acquire already from the beginning the roles and the way according to which they will work during the relationship, or a possible marriage. In this case the origin of a relationship itself is specific, in which permanent physical restrictions and the necessity of at least partial treatment by the healthy partner have not been perceived as an obstacle. Due to the healthy partners, in the literature there are existing speculations and conjectures, which have not been scientifically validated yet. For example DeLoach and Greer (1981) described the motivation of people, who are attracted to people with disabilities as atypical and self–serving. They created typology, which divided these people into categories as walking wounded (who sought relational experience with someone with whom it is very little likely to be emotionally hurt), would-be-dictators (very insecure person with need to dominate somebody), unsolicited missionaries (with need to save someone, often on a spiritual level) and gallant gesturers (marriage with a person with a disability as a favour for building their image).

The authors, however, did not substantiate their typology with any scientific data, so Milligan and Neufeld (1998) disputed their opinion in a way that proved that in shaping the relationship between healthy people and people with disabilities previous experience with disability associated with elimination prejudices, as well as resistance to social misunderstanding usually play an important role.

The opposite situation is a disability of one partner obtained in a marriage, which is characterized especially by adapting to the new and unknown reality. Disability in adulthood may be a consequence of accidents (e.g. brain injury and/or spinal cord injury, amputations), cancer, diseases of central nervous system (e.g. multiple sclerosis), neuromuscular diseases (e.g. muscular dystrophy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), or as a consequence of many other causes, which have the common feature that not only the person affected by disability, but also their partner must adapt to a new and unknown reality and acquire a new identity. Authors (Cup et al, 2001; Rolland, 1994; Fleming Courts – Newton – McNeal, 2005; Emslie et al., 2009; Fink – Skipper – Hallenbeck, 1968; Esmail – Munro – Gibson, 2007; Smith – Rainey, 2011; Perrone - Gordon – Tschopp, 2006 and others) mainly reflect the change of roles, which is also according to Boisvert and Blaise (2005) a major challenge for both partners.

However, in both cases of the time of the disability beginning is according to Rolland (1994) valid that not only the willingness to accept the challenge of acquiring the roles of caregiver and care-receiver, but also the acceptance of physical disability is related largely to personal equipment of both partners, but also to coping strategies that, according to Mann's and Dieppe´s (2006) research are individual and heterogeneous in any marital relationship. Disability of one of the partners has usually, following the authors, individual effects on both the partners, but it is also conditional to the particular quality and functionality of marital relationship. This is confirmed by the research of Warner and Kelley-Moore (2010), which points to the fact that spouses in good and functioning marital relationships are experiencing less negative consequences of disability than people in dysfunctional marital relationships.

It results from the literature that the experience with a disability is not universal, but it is closely related to gender, not only in our society but also in our cultural imagination. Apart from the fact that the reality of disability is usually significantly different for men and women, the gender aspect plays a significantly important role in the partnership and in the marital relationship of people with disabilities, whether in the division of gender roles, or experiencing of giving and receiving physical care. In consideration of the fact that the disability of one partner usually requires from their spouse participating in personal care, it can come to traditional gender conflict.

Smith Rainey (2011) states that according to traditional ideas of gender the masculinity is synonymous to "strength, independence and protection". Here, however, in the case of a man with a disability it comes to a crisis between masculine independence and a rising dependence of physical limitation. Men therefore have to reconcile their need for help with daily personal care with their masculine self-image. Seeing that femininity represents ,,dependence and passivity” may at first sight seem that femininity and disability are not in such ideological contradiction. However, the social role of women and mothers is based on the provision of physical, spiritual and emotional care. Affected women are struggling with achieving these gender expectations about a woman and a care. It seems that the relationship between a healthy woman and a disabled man the disability adds a new dimension to masculinity, as well as to femininity. In some cases a nondisabled woman can continue to work in stereotypical female roles, a handicapped man in stereotypical male roles. And exactly the functioning in traditional gender roles is a way to reject assumptions about disability and gender. The gender aspect may have an impact on roles in marriage, but in praxis it often happens that men with disabilities are working full-time and their nondisabled spouses take care of the household and children, but we have already met with the case where a woman with disability has worked full-time and her healthy husband was on parental leave with two children in pre-school age. Therefore, we think that the impact of disability on gender roles in marriage is individual and depends on several factors.

An important area of marital relationship is also the fact of giving and receiving needed care itself. Although nowadays it is common that care of the spouse or other family member is partially replaced by personal assistance, partner´s help is usually also required in some daily living activities. In their study of negative and positive effects of spousal caregiving Beach et al. (2000) report that care provision is primarily related to the type of partner´s disability, the kind of aid, and the care burden. Individual studies often point to strain of partners or burden in relation to the provision of care (Perrone – Gordon – Tschopp, 2006; Cup et al., 2011; Mann – Dieppe, 2006; Fleming Courts - Newton – McNeal, 2005). Handicapped partner is often regarded as helpless and only degraded to the position of the care-receiver. Partner without a disability is usually perceived as the burdened by obligations and tired of the caring. According to Smith Rainey, (2011) precisely because of the dynamics of care and taboos around the disabled body and providing of care, there arises prejudice of partners in roles of caregiver and care-receiver, which is often reflected in asexual partnerships perception of people with disabilities.

Perrone, Gordon and Schopp (2006) point to the fact that care can also have positive aspects, such as pride, ability or sense of usefulness. Moreover, according to Smith Rainey (2011) care is closely linked with intimacy, or stays an integral part thereof. An example would be providing assistance with personal hygiene or dressing, which could be separately perceived as a potential burden but, as a part of intimacy, it can be seen as pleasure.