2. 1/1//1 Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching DIANE LARSEN-FREEMAN Second Edition OXFORD UNIV ERSI TY I'RESS
3. OXFORD UN1"~"SlTY I'R"ss Gr.a' CJar.~don511""', Oxford OU GoP Oxford Un;wNiry Pr. " i. a depa rtment orlb. UnlV<'rsity of Oxlor d. It timhe.. til<'Vow.nity", ol>jeetiveof ". nollonce in ""searc h, ' Oxford University p",ss 2000 The moral right' ofth••uthor haw b.en . ss.rte00 z<>08 2007 , 006 2O(l5 20 0 4 '"No unau thorized p hotocopying tll rights n" .rwd. No pan of'hi' publicatio n may be "'prodnced, storod In • J'('tr.'eval 'Y' ~em, o~ tram mitled. in .ny Conn or by any tne, n" wltbn lll the pnor perm,,,wn IIIwnling o[Oxford University Pre" or., e"pn'~'ly pern'illod by law,or under te",,, ,greed witb the "~proPI'Ia'" rep,,?8r.pb'cs nghts org'm"llon. Enqllirie. (."ncerning reproouetion out"de tbe "",P<' oftbe .b<>ve .hould be ,ent to the HT Rigbll Depall",ent. Ox/urd lInlvermy Pre... at the "ddre" above YOII must not dn"l.te this book in 'my othor hinding or covor and yen tn,,,t Intpo.ethl"Jme cond ition on onyacquin'r Any web. lte, I'('l,'~ '0 in thi, pllblk"r!on Or<' in ,h. pnhlic dom.ln and their addre"e. ,'1'(' provided by Oxford Universi ty Pr<-" [or intbnn.tion only, Oxford Un'VI'rsny Pr<-" d"cl'lm, .ny re,pon'ibility for the ,.""tent IS" N019 4:l55748 Printed in Chi""
Series Editors' Preface It is always a feeling of great pride for general editors of a pedagogical series when the resounding success of one of its books leads to the demand for publication of a second, expanded edition. We arc therefore extremely pleased that Diane Larsen-Freeman has undertaken to con- tribute to the field of language -teaching professionals a newly revised, updated, and enlarged version of her original and immensely valua ble Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. The ways in which the second edition differs from the first- from the addition of new methods, through more att ention to the learnin g process, to a little self-indulgence in methodological choice-arc amply documented in Diane's own mes- sage 'To the Teacher Educator', and these arc departures that are both appropriate and illuminating. What has not changed, however- and modesty would prevent her from saying so-a re the intangible qualities that made the first edition so special: enlightenment without condescen- sion, comprehensiveness without tedium, engagement without oversim- plification. Still evident as before is Diane's gift for being able gently to lead one to examine one's own professional behavior for possible incon- gruities between one's view of language and the way one teaches it. And still there, even intensified, is evidence of her serious and deeply personal thought devoted to comp lex pedagogical issues and her incomparable ability to make these matters come alive with great clarity for the widest professional readership. It is no mean accomp lishment. Russell N. Campbell William E. Rutherford
4. To my parents, Elaine and Randolph Larsen, with heartfelt gratitude for their love and encouragement Contents Acknowledgments To the Teacher Educator 1 Introduction 2 The Grammar-Translation Meth od 3 The Direct Method 4 The Audio-Lingual Method 5 The Silent Way 6 Dcsuggcsropedia 7 Community Language Learning 8 Total Physical Response vn 11 23 35 53 73 89 107 9 Communicative Language Teaching 121 10 Conrenr-bascd, Task-based, and Participatory Approaches 137 11 Learning StrategyTraining, Cooperative Learning, and Multiple Intelligences 159 12 Conclusion 177 Appendix 19 1
5. Acknowledgments I must begin by thanking the readers of the first edition of this book. Your receptiveness has enab led me to publish this updated second edition. In addition, it has been a joy to interact with you. The approach I have used in this book is based on my experience in teaching the methods/approaches course at the School for International Training. This book would not have been written in the fi rst place if it were not for the influence of my colleagues and students there. I am very grateful to them all. In particular. for th is second edition, I must single out Carolyn Nims, who went out of her way to give me comments based upon her experience in using the book in a reacher education program. Debra Blake and Bill Conley were also kind enough to read portions o f this manuscript and offe r comments. Th is book has also benefitted from the fact that leading methodo logists have generously responded to my request for feedback on portions of this man uscript. I am indebted to Earl Stevick (To the Teacher Educator], Shakti Gattegno of Educational Solutio ns Inc. (Silent Way), Georgi Lozanov, Alison Miller, and Tctsuo Nishiz awa (Desuggesto pcdia}, Jenn y- belle Rardin and Pat Tirone of Counseling-Learning lnstirurcs (Commu- nity Language Learnin g), James Asher (Total Physical Response], Marjorie Wesche (conten t-based instruction), and Elsa Auerbach (partie- iparory approach). Their comments made me feel more confident tha t I have inrcrprcred the methodologists' intent. I am also grateful for the comments of Ruth Wajnryb of LARA Consulta ncy in Australia, and Joann Cranda ll. Any remaining errors of interpretation are, of course, fully my responsibility, For the initial faith they showed an d for their continued encourage- ment and helpful suggesrions. ! acknowledge with gratitude the editors of this series, Russell Campbell and William Rutherford. It has also been a pleasure working with the editors at Oxford Univer- sit)' Press. first Anne Conybeare and then Julia Sallabank. Finally,I must express my Jeep appreciation to my spouse. Elliott, who has. as always. given me his support th roughout this project. Diane Larsen-Freeman
6. To the Teacher Educator ON LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS AND THEIR USE IN TEACHER EDUCATION A study of methods is invaluable in teacher education in at least five ways: 1 Methods serve as a foil for reflection that can aid teachers in bringing to conscious awareness the thinking that underlies their actions. We know that teachers come to teacher training with ideas about the teac hing/learning process for med fro m the years they have spent as stu- dents themselves (I.ortie 1975). A major purpose of teacher educa tion is to help teac hers mak e the tacit explicit (Shulman 1987; Freeman 1991 ). When teachers arc exposed to methods and asked to reflect on their principles and actively engage with the ir techniques, they can beco me clearer about why they do what they do. They become aware of their own fundamental assumptions, values, and beliefs. 2 By becoming clear on where they stand, teachers can choose to teac h differently from the way they were taught. They are able to see why they are attracted to certain meth ods and repell ed by others. They arc able to make choices that arc informed, not cond itioned. They may be able to resist, or at least argue aga inst, the imposition of a particular method by authorities. In ot her situations , where a method is not imposed, methods offer teachers alternatives to what they currently think and do . It does not necessarily follow th at teachers will choose to modify their current practice. The point is that they will have the understanding to do so, if they are able to and want to. 3 A knowledge of methods is part of th e knowledge base of teaching. With it, teachers join a commun ity of pra ctice (Freeman 1( 92). Being a community member entails learn ing the pro fessiona l discourse that corn- munity mem bers use so that professiona l dialog can take place. Being part of a discourse community confers a professional identity and con- nects teachers with others so they are not so isolated in their practice. 4 A professiona l discourse community may also challenge teachers' con - ceptions of how teachin g leads to learning. Interacting with others'
7. X To the Teacher Educator conceptio ns of practice helps keep teachers' teaching alive-helps pre- vent it from becoming stale and overly routinized (Prabhu 1990), 5 A knowledge of methods helps expand a teacher's repertoire of tech- niques. This in itself provides an additional avenue for professional growth. as some teachers find their way to new philosophical posi- tions. not hy first entertaining new principles. but rather by trying out new techniques. Moreover. effective teachers who arc more experi- enced and expert have a large, diverse repertoire of best practices (Arends 1998), which presumably helps them deal more effectively ,v-irh the unique qualities and idiosyncrasies of their students. Despite these potent ial gains from a study of methods, it is Important to acknowledge that since the publication of the first edition of this hook in 1986, a numb er of writers in our field have criticized the concept of lan- guage teaching methods. Some say rhar methods are prescriptions for classroom behavior, and that teachers arc encouraged by textbook pub- lishers and academics to implement them whether or not the methods are appropriate for a part icular context (Pcr mycook 1989; Richards 1990; Hollida y 1994). Others have noted that the search for the best method is ill-advised (Prabhu 1990; Bartolome 1994), that teachers do not think about methods when planning their lessons (Long 1991), and that methodologicallabels rcll us little about what reallyoccurs in classrooms (Allwright 1988; Katz 1996). These criticisms have made me stop and think. 1suppose it is true, I thought, that a particular method call be imposed on teachers by ot hers. However, these others arc likely to be disappointed if they hope that man- dating a particular method will lead to standardization. For we know that teaching is more than following a recipe. Any method is going to be shaped by a teacher'sown understanding. beliefs, style,and levelofexpe- rience. Teachers are not mere conveyor belts delivering language through inflexible prescribed and proscribed behaviors (Larsen-Freeman 1991); they are professionals who can, in the best of all worlds, make their own decisions. They arc informed by their own experience. the findings from research, and the wisdom of practice accumulated by the profession (sec, for example, Kumaruvadivc!u 1994). Furthermore. a method is deconrcxrualizcd. How a method is imple- mented in the classroom is going to he affected not only by who the reacher is. but also by who the students are, their and the teacher'scxpcc- rations of appropriate social roles. the institutional constraints and demands. and factors connected to the wider sociocultural context in which the instruction takes place. Even the 'right' method will not com- To the Teacher Educator XI pensare for inadequate conditions of learning or overcome sociopolitical inequities. In addition, decisions that teachers make are often affected by exigencies in the classroom rather than by methodological considera- tions, Saying that a particular method is practiced certainly docs not give us the whole picture of wha t is happening in the classroom. Then, too, since a method is more abstract than a teaching activity. it is not surpris- ing that teachers think in terms of activities rather than methodological choiceswhen they plan their lessons. Thus while I understand the criticisms, I do not believe that a study of language teaching method s should be excluded from language teacher education. It is not methods, but how they are used that is at issue. A study of methods need not lead to the de-skilling of teachers but rather can serve a variety of useful functions when used appropriately in teacher education. It can help teachers articulate, and perhaps transform, their understanding of the teaching/learning process. Methods can serve as models of the integration of theory (the principles) and practice (the tech- niques). Their study can encourage continuing education in the lifelong process of learning to teach (Larsen-Freeman 1998). Teachers and teacher educators should not be blinded by the criticisms of methods and thus fait to see their invaluable contribution to teacher education and continuing development. Key to doing so, though. is moving beyond ideology to inquiry, a movement to which I hope this book will con- tribute. CHANGES IN THE SECOND EDITION In addition to some modest updating of all the methods presented in the first edition, Chapter 6 has undergone a substantial revision to reflect the evolution of Suggesropedia (first edition) to Desuggestopedia in this edi- tion. Further, the Introduction (Chapter 1) has been expanded. Contrary to those who fear that a method will be imposed on practitioners, my experience as a teacher educator is rhar the challenge lies in getting teach- ers to leave behind teaching as they were taught and become aware of, and open to, alternatives. I therefore welcome the opportunity tha t the expanded chapter has given me to elaborat e on one way that openness can be encouraged. Another change is the inclusion of methods that have come into promi- nence since the first edition of this book. In order to keep this book from becoming roo long, I have grouped a number of methods in two chapters. In addition to considerations of length, I have justified this decision because ir seems these methods have in common the views that first,
8. XII To the Teacher Educator To the Teacher Educator Xlll Allwright, Dick. 1988. Observation ill the Classroom. London: Long- nun. Anthony, Edward. 1963. 'A pproach, method, and technique.' Ellglish Language Teaching Jailmal 17: 6]-7 reprinted in Allen, H. and R. Campbell (cds.): Teaching ~llglish as ,1 Second Language. (2nd edn.) 1972. New York: ~1cGraw·Hi ll. wit h many faces' both to make (he case for corircnr-bascd instruction as a method of language teac hing, and (0 capture the great variety of forms and settings in whic h it rakes place. Kumaravadivelu (1993) observes that the rerm '(ask' is often used with reference (Q bot h content and mcrhodol- ogy of language (caching. Indeed, within the strong version of a commu- nicative approach (Howatt 1984), (he traditional separation of syllabus design and methodology is blurred. If students learn (Q communicate by communicating (Breen 1984). (hen (he desti nation and the route becom e one and the same (Nu nan 1989). f inally. if we apply the definition of a method we are using in this boo k, 'A met hod is a coherent set of thought- in-action links,' then the th ree rightfu lly belong. Some might also question whether the three arc distinctive enough to be treated separately. For example. Skehan (1998) makes the point that one could regard much content-based instruction (as well as project work, which we will also briefly consider in Chapter 10) as particular examples of a task-based approach. And others have suggested that task- based and participatory ap proaches are a form of content-based instruc- tion.ln any case, although it should be acknowledged that these methods arc unified by (he assumption rhat students learn (Q communicate by communicating, (heir scope and their particular foci seem distinctive enough ( 0 warrant independent treatment. Finally, alt hough I have made every effo rt toward a faith ful rendering of each method and methodological innova tion, (here will undoubtedly be those who would not totally accep t my rendition . Th is is understand- ab le and probably inevitable. My descr iption is, as it must be, a product of my own experience. It is my sincere hope (hat this book will bot h inform and stimulate its readers and that it will encourage them to reflect, inquire, and experi- ment. If it meets these goa ls, then ir may help to restore faith in the appro- priate use of reachi ng method s in language reacher educat ion. language can best be learned when ir is taught th rou gh communication, rat her than for it (Chapter to, on content-based, task-based, and partici- parory approaches), and second, that language acquisition can be enhanced hy working nor only on language, bur also on the process of learning (Chapter It, on learning strategies, cooperative learning, and mult iple intelligences). A further substantial mod ificati on is that the epilogue of the first edi- tion has grown inro a full chapte r of its own (Chapter 12) in (his second edition. Readers of the first edition have rold me that they wished that J had concluded with a more explicit evaluation and comparison of the methods. I chose not to do so in the first edition of this book. as I am not of the opi nion that (he purpose of learning about methods is so one can adopt the right one, or that I could choose for others which one that would be. However, in this second edition, I have responded to readers' requests by providing a summary chan of the method s discussed in this book, and by so doing, high lighting their ma jor differences. I have also used the opportunity that a full final chapter presents to indulge myself in sharing with readers my views on making informed methodo logica l cho ices. A word about nomenclature is also in order. I am using (he term 'm ethod' here nor to mean a formulaic prescription, hut rather a coherent set of links between principles and certa in techniques and procedu res. Anthony (1963) has made the case for a tripartite hierarchy. As he put it: , ... techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach' (p. 64 ). Following Amhony, in certain of the chapters, Jwill introduce a particular method by showing how it is an example of a more general approach ro language teaching. However, not all methods discussed in this book conveniently follow from a general approach. They all do , though, have both a conceptual and an operational component, finin g the definition in Richards et al. (1992): Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics (a method is 'a way of teaching a language wh ich is based on systematic principles and procedures'), and justifying my use of the term. Admittedly, I sometimes have foun d it difficult to use the term 'method' with more recent innovations, such as conrenr-based insrruc- tion and coo perative learnin g. At times, I have resorted to the term 'methodological innovations.' Even so, some language educato rs might obj ect to the inclusion of con- rent-ba sed, task-ba sed, and part icipatory approaches in a methods book, for they might be more comforta ble calling these syllabus types. Never- rhclcss, others feci that a method designation is very appropriate. Snow (199 1), for instance, characterizes content-based instr uction as a 'method Brattleboro, Vermollt REFERENCES Diane Lar sen-Freeman
9. XIV To the Teacher Educator Arends, Richard. 1998. I.eam ing to Teach. (4th cdn.) New York: Mctiraw- t lill. Bartolome, Lilia. 1994. 'Beyond the methods fetish: Toward a human!...- ing pedagogy.' Harvard Educational Review 64/2: 173- 94. Breen, Michael. 1984. ' Process syllabuses for the language classroom' in Brumfit, C. (cd.): General English Syllabus Design- Curriculum and Syllabus Design for the General Englisb Classroom (Ef L Docu ments 118). Oxford: Pergamon Press for the British Council. Freeman , Donald . 199 1. 'To make the tacit explicit: Teacher educatio n, emerging discourse and conceptions of teaching.' Teaching and Teacher Education 7: 439- 54. Freeman, Donald. 1992. ' Language teacher education, emerging dis- cou rse, and change in classroo m practice' in Flo,v-erdcvv, j., M. Brock , and S. Hsia (cds.): Perspectives on Second Language Teacher Educa- tion. Hong Kong: City Polytechnic of Hong Kong. Holliday, Adrian. 1994. Appropriate Metbodoiogy and Social Contex t. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ho watt, A. P. R. 1984. A J-listory of e nglish Language Teaching. Ox ford: Oxford Universiry Press. Katz, Anne. 1996. 'Teaching style: a way to understand instruct ion in lan- guage classrooms' in Bailey, K. and D. Nunan (eds.): Voices from the Language Classroom. Ca mbridge: Cambridge University Press. Kumaravadivclu, B. 1993. 'The name of the task and the task of naming: Methodological aspects of task-based pedagogy' in Crookes, G. and S. Gass (cds.) : Tasks in a Pedagogical Context. Clcvcdon: Multilingual Matt ers. Kuma ravadivclu, H. 1994. 'The posrmerhod condition: [Ejmcrging stra te- gies for second/foreign language teaching.' TESOL Q uarter/)' 28/ 1: 27-48. Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1991 . 'Research on language reaching method- ologies: A review of rhc past and an agenda for the future' in de Bot, K., R. B. Ginsberg, and C. Kramsch (cds.): Foreign l.angnagc Research in Cross-cultural t'ersnectioe. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Bcniamin s Publishing. Lorscn-Frccman, Diane. 199H. ' Learning reaching is a lifelong process.' Perspecuuce XX IV/2: 5- 1I . Long, Michael. 199 1. ' FOCll S on form: I. design feature in language teach- ing methodo logy' in de Bot, K., R. B. Ginsberg. and C. Kramsch (eds.): Foreign Language Research in Croes-cutturol Perspoctiue, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Bcnjami ns Publishing. To the Teacher Educator x v Lortie, Dan. 1975. Schoolteacher: A Sociological Stud)'. Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press. Nu nan, David. 1989. Desiglling Tasks {or the Commu nicative Class- room. Ca mbridge: Ca mbridge University Press. Pcnnycook , Alastair. 1989. 'The concept of method, interested knowl- edge, and the politics (If language teaching.' T ESOL Q uarterly 23/4: 591-6 15. Prabhu, N. S. 1990. 'There is no best method-why?' TF.SOL Quarterl)' 24/2, 16 1- 76. Richards.jack. 1990. Th e Language Teaching Matrix . Ca mbridge: Cam- bridge University Press. Shulman, Lee. 1987. 'Knowledge-base and teaching: Foundations of the new reform.' Harvard Educational Review 57/1: 1- 22. Skehan, Peter. 199 8. 'Task-based instruction.' Annual Review ofApplied Linguistics: Fou ndations ofSecond Language Teaching. Volume 18. Snow, Marguerite Ann. 199 1. 'Content-based instruction: A method with many faces' in Alaris, j. E. (ed.). Georgetown University Rou nd Table 0 11 Languages and linguistics. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
10. 1 Introduction GOALS OF THIS BOOK One of the goals of this book is for you to learn about many different lan- guage teaching methods. I will use the term 'langua ge teaching method' to mean a coherent set of links between actions and thoughts in language teaching. The actions are the techniques and the thoughts are the princi- ples in the title of this book: Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. A second goal is to help you uncover the thoughts that guide your own actions as a teac her. Th ey may not be ones of which you arc aware. Seeking to determine wh ich principles of the methods you read about here are most [disjharmonious with your own thinking will help you to uncover some of your implicit thoughts and beliefs about reaching. A third goa l is to introduce you to a variety of techniques, some of which will be new. Although certain tech niques may require furt her tra in- ing, orhers ca n be immediately implemented . Feel free to experiment and adapt those techniques to your teaching context. THOUGHT-iN-ACTION LINKS It is important to recognize th at methods link thoughts and act ions beca use teaching is not entirely about one or the other. Of course this is as true about your own teachin g as it is about any meth od you will read about in this book . As a teacher of language, you have rhoughts ' about your subject matter-what language is, what culture is- and about your stu dents-who they are as learners and how it is they learn. You also have thoughts nbour yourself as a teac her and what you can do to help your stu dents learn. lt is very important for you to become aware of the thoughts that guide your actions in the classroom. With this awareness, you will be able to examine why you do what you do and perhaps choose to think about or do things differentl y. I I will usc the term lllOlIghl> for the sake of simplicity; howl'vrr, I mean for thoughts to inrllll.le helief" ;ltt;tllde" v.,I1,es, and awarene" as well.
