Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

the last millennium largely fits the pattern predicted if farming is the

principal agent. Such evidence is found earlier in the more mesic east where

settled agriculture has been practised for over 1 000 years; in the drier parts,

which were occupied by more or less itinerant pastoralists until about 100 years

ago, no evidence of artificial change is detected until modern times. In

addition there is evidence of response to climatic change during the past in the

arid and semi-arid central region, and possibly the highlands of Natal, but not

in the more equable areas of the western Cape Province and Transvaal.

Ref ID : 1617

347. Avery, M. Man and environment. The Digging Stick 8(3):9-10, 1991.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : PALAEOENVIRONMENTS; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; CLIMATE

Notes : This article shows the relevance of palaentology in attempting to

understand how the history of human beings relate to the environment. It is

suggested that the weather affects people's lives. It is also suggested that,

unless people accept that they also affect their environment, the earth will

become uninhabitable in the future.

Ref ID : 1619

348. Ayensu, E.S. Africa. In: Plant Resources of Arid and Semiarid Lands: a

global perspective, edited by Goodin, J.R. and Northington,

D.K.Lubbock,Texas:Academic Press Inc. 1985,p. 1-33.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : DROUGHT; IRRIGATION; SOIL CONSERVATION; CONSERVATION; LAND USE;

POLICY; REMOTE SENSING; GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION;

PRODUCTION POTENTIAL; RAINFALL; ENERGY; WATER CONSERVATION; SATELLITE IMAGERY

Notes : The information presented in this chapter dictates that steps need to be

taken immediately by the responsible African governments to alleviate the

vulnerable position in which their people find themselves. It is mandatory that

very imaginative and innovative programmes be designed to help arrest further

displacements of the people. There are certain basic research procjects in crop

sciences that must be given serious consideration. The first consideration is

to conduct research on the adaptation of major crop plants to drought stress.

Currently, very little information exists on the morphological, physiological,

genetic, and biochemical pathways inherent in drought resistance in some of the

important food crops in arid and semiarid regions. Another activity that

requires investigation, to raise the yield of potential of crops in arid and

semiarid regions, is the exploitation of heterosis or hybrid vigor, namely the

modification of plant architecture and growth rhythm so that the response of the

genotype to irrigation and organic or chemical fertilizer application may be

enhanced. Similarly, intensive experiments on raising the yield ceiling without

affecting stability of performance are yet to be tried in rainfed crops grown in

arid and semiarid regions. Such experiments could achieve early seedling vigor

and rapid root growth through heterosis. Suitable F1 hybrids may help to elevate

and stabilize yields in rainfed crops through early seedling establishment as

well as early maturity. In this regard, it is imperative that the collection

and preservation of both crop and animal genotypes which are adapted to drought

stress conditions be undertaken before they become extinct in irrigated areas.

It will also be most useful for the relatively few well-equipped facilities in

Africa to use radioisotope techniques in estimating heterosis for root growth.

Because of the importance of legumes in the diet of people living in the arid

and semiarid regions of Africa, it is necessary that studies of bioenergetics of

plant mass production, as well as microbiological and physiological aspects of

nitrogen fixation, be encouraged in the laboratories that are equipped to

undertake such studies. Because of the excessive pressures on trees for firewood

and other wood uses in the arid and semiarid regions of Africa, programmes need

to be initiated to assist in the establishment of new fast-growting plant

communities that can serve as multipurpose trees for fodder and firewood, as

well as for soil conservation. In this regard it is highly recommended that

sound land-use policies be undertaken together with soil and water management

techniques. Recent technologies such as remote sensing from both aerial and

satellite photography are now available to arid and semiarid regions of Africa

and must be exploited for the full benefit of the people. The production of

high-yield crops should not be the only major concern in these areas. Problems

relating to postharvest crop production should be given equal attention. It

seems most unfortunate that because of lack of expertise, large quantities of

crops go to waste after harvest in these regions. This is largely due to the

lack of attention paid to the chemical composition of the harvested crops, and

the seed anatomy and physiology as they affect the nutiritional qualities of the

produce. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that few data, comparable to that

known about the composition and structure of wheat, exist to guide plant

breeders in the selection of high-yield millet, sorthum, and dryland legumes

that combine nutritional and functional properties of such crops. In addition,

there is little understanding of the biochemical and biophysical characteristics

that influence the useful properties of grains and how they are affected during

storage. Surely, in order to change the current unsatisfactory situation,

research in these and other areas of postharvest food conservation should be

given the highest priority.

Ref ID : 1268

349. Baard, C.R. 'n Evaluasie van die veevermindering skema.Anonymous Anonymous

Pretoria:Departement van Landbou - Tegniese Dienste. :1-93, 1978.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : VELD MANAGEMENT; POLICY; VELD CONDITION; LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION;

CLIMATE; DROUGHT

Notes : The exclusive goal of this scheme to reduce livestock was to stabilise

grazing in certain farming areas in SA and SWA/Namibia. Participation in the

scheme meant that enormous adjustments had to be made, including: changes in

farming methods; instituting new physical facilities; developing different veld

management policies; changing veld conditions; altering livestock production;

taking into account the human nature of the farmer; and consolidating

uneconomical farming units. The results of the scheme led to a number of

positive and negative findings. On the positive side, there was a clear

indication that insight into livestock farming was immensely broadened through

participation i nthe scheme. Further, communication between farmers and

extension workers was improved dramatically as a result. On the more critical

side, errors were made in extending the scheme to grazingland; accurate

evaluation was hampered due to lack of an objective standard of measurement; the

favourable climate which prevailed at the time rendered differences between

participants and non-participants insignificant; the object of financial

assistance was not accurately reflected; interpretation of results are outdated

since prices of produce has increased dramatically since the start of the

scheme; and it was suggested that the scheme failed in its ultimate goal in that

it did not necessarily succeed in increasing the resistance of the veld against

the effects of drought.

Ref ID : 2236

350. Baard, C.R. Bosbeheer as grondbewaaringsmaatreel. Proceedings of a workshop

on bush encroachment and bush thickening held in Pretoria. Pienaar,

A.J.Anonymous Pretoria:Department of Agriculture and Fisheries. :K1-K9, 1980.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : BUSH ENCROACHMENT

Ref ID : 2237

351. Baard, C.R. Verslag werkgroep: Bosbeheer as grondbewarings maatreel.

Proceedings of a workshop on bush encroachment adn bush thickening held in

Pretoria. Pienaar, A.J.Anonymous Pretoria:Department of Agriculture and

Fisheries. :P1-P2, 1980.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : BUSH ENCROACHMENT

Ref ID : 2248

352. Baard, E.H.W. Distribution and status of the geometric tortoise Psammobates

geometricus in South Africa. Biological Conservation 63:235-239, 1993.

Reprint : Not in File,

Ref ID : 2007

353. Babbit, B. Invasive alien species.Anonymous , 1998.

Reprint : Not in File,

Notes : Statement by the Secretary of the Interior, Bruce Babbit on Invasive

Alien Species "Science in Wildland Weed Management" Symposium, Denver, 8 April

1998, Department of the Interior, Washington. Text from the Internet Website

http://www.doi.gov/secretary/weedbab.htm.

Ref ID : 1895

354. Baber, C. Conservation farming - the farmer's dilemma. Veld Trust

Conference on the conservation status of agricultural resources in the RSA. Du

Preez, J.F.Anonymous Pretoria:Unisa. , 1990.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CONSERVATION; FAUNA; POLLUTION; BUSH ENCROACHMENT

Notes : The author concludes that the farmer's dilemma is, essentially, the

nation's dilemma. We must establish a "culture" of conservation in our society.

There must be special programmes for the youth. Successful farmers must be used

to encourage and show the way to optimal resource utilisation. The Department

of Environmental Affairs must be allocated necessary manpower, funds and

equipment. Passive farmers must be motivated -recalcitrant farmers must be

disciplined. There must be co-ordination between the different Departments,

especially of Environment and Nature Conservation (flora and fauna). Research

must be co-ordinated and directed at the solution of special problems. A

"holistic" approach must be made - the message must be clear - Conservation

farming pays - which it does. The problems of pollution must receive special

attention as must bush encroachment. Finally we must be proactive rather than

reactive.

Ref ID : 20

355. Bagshawe-Smith, L. Rhenoster bush in the district of Albany. South African

Journal of Science 33:355, 1937.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : GRAZING EFFECTS; VEGETATION CHANGE; FYNBOS; EASTERN CAPE; LAND

DEGRADATION; BUSH ENCROACHMENT; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL; VELD MANAGEMENT; STOCKING

RATE; RAINFALL; CARRYING CAPACITY; DROUGHT; FIRE

Abstract : The spread of the Rhenoster bush has reached alarming proportions in

the Albany district, and is having a disastrous effect on one of the best

grazing areas in the Cape. Its eradication and control call for close co-

operation between farmers and the Department of Agriculture. Mr. Bagshawe-Smith

is a practical farmer whose experience of the bush has been confined to

grassveld, where the average rainfall is 24 inches. The veld around Grahamstown

is very mixed, with a rainfall which varies considerably. The carrying capacity

of the ground has been reduced by about 50 per cent, and the loss per 1,000

morgen, in terms of wool, is about 350 pounds. Further, there is the time

factor to consider, as the older the infestation, the longer the ground takes to

recover. It is suggested that constant watchfulness is required, that over-

stocking should not be permitted, and that rotational grazing should be adopted.

Drought has apparently the same effect in preparing the ground for the fine,

thistle-like seed, as overstocking. The seed is carried by the wind. The bush

can be cleared by cutting it at ground level with a hoe, and the use of fire is

recommended. Hoeing can be done any time of the year, but is rather expensive,

up to 10 shillings a morgen, and seelings are often left. Burning must be

complete and thorough. After either form of treatment, the veld should be given

time to recover.

Ref ID : 1620

356. Bakkes, J.A., Van den Born, G.J., Helder, J.C., Swart, R.J., Hope, C.W.,

and Parker, J.D.E. An Overview of Environmental Indicators: State of the art and

perspectives. Environment assessment technical reports.Anonymous Nairobi:UNEP &

RIVM. :1-72, 1994.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : POLLUTION; BIODIVERSITY; CLIMATE; CLIMATE CHANGE; STATISTICS;

POPULATION; GLOBAL CHANGE; BIBLIOGRAPHY; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; GOVERNMENT

INITIATIVES; VELD MANAGEMENT

Notes : This report is the result of a collaborative effort between the authors,

from RIVM and the University of Cambridge, various other contributors and UNEP.

National and international work on indicators is critically reviewed, focusing

on a number of key issues that had been identified by UNEP: air and water

pollution; natural resources and biodiversity; climate change; ozone depletion;

public health; demography; production, consumption, and technology; waste; and

costs of environmental protection measures. A distinction is made between

different levels of information. Measurements produce raw data. Combination

and publication of data leads to statistics. Statistics are translated and

applied into indicators. Indicators have an added significance as compared to

the underlying statistics and are tied to specific purpose. For simplicity the

number of indicators can be reduced by aggregating them into an index. A

conceptual framework is proposed for the selection, development and analysis of

indicators. This framework comprises three interrelated sub-systems: the human

population; production, consumption and technology; and the environment. It's

three objectives are: to make a comprehensive literature review, supported by

bibliographic references, on the present status of research on, and the

development of, environmental indicators at national, regional and global

levels; to determine, through contacts and correspondence, the work presently

done on environmental indicators by UN agencies, governments, institutes and

organisations, with particular reference to trials or implementation for

planning and management purposes; and to identify key areas where more work or

co-ordination is required at the international level, including recommendations

for ways in which UNEP might collaborate with key organisations in a cost-

effective way to fill major gaps.

Ref ID : 588

357. Ballard, C. Drought and economic distress: South Africa in the 1800's.

Journal of Interdisciplinary History 17(2):359-378, 1986.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : DROUGHT; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; RAINFALL

Notes : The story of humankind's struggle with climatic adversities is one of

the more prominent themes in the world's stock of documentary, religious, and

mythological literature. Drought has been cited as a prime catalyst in

contributing to significant historical changes, particularly on the African

continent. The chronological focus of this article is on the first three

decades of the nineteenth century, which was a period of unusually severe

drought and abnormally low rainfall for much of southern and eastern Africa.

Ref ID : 1622

358. Balling, R.C.J. The climatic impact of a sonoran vegetation discontinuity.

Climatic Change 13:99-109, 1988.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CLIMATE; GRAZING EFFECTS; SOIL EROSION; VEGETATION DYNAMICS

Abstract : The international fence separating Mexico and the United States is

marked by a sharp vegetation discontinuity in the Sonoran Desert. Due to

overgrazing, the Mexican side of the border has shorter grasses, more bare soil,

and a higher albedo compared to the adjacent lands in the United States. In

this investigation, long-term climate records are analyzed to determine the

magnitude of any climatic differences associated with the spatial variation in

the vegetation regime. The results suggest that summertime maximum temperatures

recorded at the Mexican stations are significantly higher (by nearly 2.50C) than

the Arizona stations when latitude and elevation are held constant. When only

elevation is held constant, the difference in the maximum temperature jumps to

approximately 40C. No discernible changes in monthly and/or summer season

precipitation could be identified in the records. These findings add support to

other site-specific field measurements suggesting warming in desert areas where

vegetation cover is decreasing and albedo is increasing.

Ref ID : 2113

359. Bands, D.P. The Forest Act and the Moutain Catchment Areas Act: Their role

in the conservation of water resources. Southern African Journal of Aquatic

Sciences 15(2):226-235, 1989.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : FOREST; CONSERVATION

Ref ID : 2307

360. Bang, K.O. and Stimie, C.M. Degradation of groundwater resources in South

Africa. Institute for Agricultural Engineering. Pretoria:Institute for

Agricultural Engineering, An Institute of the Agricultural Research Council.

Draft, 1998.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : DROUGHT; IRRIGATION

Notes : This report concludes that this overview has highlighted the potential

threats that face the underground water resources of South Africa. The degree

to which degradation has occurred on a regional or national scale has not been

indicated. This is mainly due to the scarcity of information which existed in

times past. It has been stressed that the failure of the works to abstract the

underground water is frequently misinterpreted as a failure of diminishment of

the resource. This was particularly evident in the case of the Drought Relief

Programme in the early nineties. Short term shortages have, and still do, occur

in those areas where there has been an over extraction of water for irrigation

or municipal use. These localized areas have also been shown to recover after

heavy rain. Natural underground water frequently contains mineral salts; in

some cases to a harmful degree (e.g. Nitrates). This natural phenomenon cannot

be regarded as degradation. The potential contamination of underground water

resources is a danger. While industrial point sources are controlled diffuse

sources they are still in need of further attention. These relate in particular

to human and domestic waste from informal settlements and the over-application

of fertilizer. Attempts to reduce these threats have been made but the effect

will not immediately be noticeable. Underground water will still remain the

most important source of water in the semi-arid regions of South Africa. The

correct development and management thereof is therefore a priority.

Ref ID : 426

361. Barker, J. The effect of catchment land use on sediment input to

Swartvlei.University of Cape Town. , 1985. Master of Arts.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; LAND USE; SEDIMENTATION; WESTERN CAPE

Ref ID : 1207

362. Barlow, G.R. An economic analysis of soil conservation policy for selected

commercial farms in KwaZulu-Natal.University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. , 1995.

Inherent in the erosion process is a high level of uncertainty. This is

associated with the inability to accurately quantify and predict the

consequences of prolonged erosion for agricultural production, or estimate the

time period over which induced innovations will be able to compensate for it.

Therefore, there are incentives to formulate strategies that will achieve

tangible reductions in erosion. Data were collected through a postal survey

conducted in October 1993, from the following five commercial farming regions:

Dalton/Wartburg, Camperdown/Eston, Dundee, Estcourt, and Winterton. Soil

conservation incentives are expected to differ according to enterprise types and

site-specific circumstances, and stratifying according to these regions

incorporates a diverse spectrum of agricultural systems. There were 480

potential survey respondents, and 159 (35%) usable questionnaires were returned.

The response rate is relatively good for a postal survey, although results may

be slightly biased in favour of farmers that are concerned or interested in soil

conservation. Adoption of soil conservation measures is modelled as a multi-

stage decision process, representing the following phases: awareness of the

erosion problem, the perception that erosion is worth trying to resolve,

farmers' technical and financial abilities to implement soil conservation

measures required for their farms, and finally the actual adoption of

conservation practices. A logistic regression analysis shows visible erosion

impacts, knowledge of erosion's adverse implications for agricultural

productivity, farmers' willingness to invest their own capital in conservation

activities, predominantly crop farms, and sufficient financial resources, have

significant positive impacts on adoption. The mean predicted probability score

for the Technical Ability mode is 0.54, illustrating farmers' lack of technical

soil conservation skills to implemnent appropriate conservation measures is a

major constraining factor within the adoption process. Variables influencing

conservation effort, reflecting the extensiveness and effectiveness of soil

conservation measures, are expected to differ from those affecting adoption, and

effort is modelled separately using linear regression. Results support prior

expectations indicating conservation effort depends mainly on the following

financial characteristics: farmers' willingness to invest their own captial in

conservation activities, debt financing, and on-farm financial and managerial

benefits from implementing soil conservation activities. Farmers' perceptions

regarding the monitoring and enforcement of soil conservation legislation are

also analyzed using frequency tables. Although 65% of respondents believe that

violations of Act 43/1983 will be discovered, only 20% perceive that

transgressions will be both detected and subsequently prosecuted. This

suggests the transaction costs related to enforcing prosecutions are high, and

the possibility of being prosecuted is unlikely to encourage farmers to

implement soil conservation activities. Agents (eg. Soil Conservation

Committees and extension officers), and media (eg. extension service reports)

play an invaluable role in promoting soil conservation. High transactions costs

associated with enforcing legislation indicate it may be appropriate for the