Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

equilibrium communities that progess steadily toward or away from climax

depending on grazing pressure seems not to apply in many arid and semiarid

systems. Examples of alternative steady states, abrupt thresholds, and

discontinuous and irreversible transitions are becoming increasingly abundant

for both succession and retrogression. When one group of plants has been

displaced by another as a result of altered climate-grazing-fire interactions,

the new assemblage may be long-lived and persistent, despite progressive grazing

management practices. The adage "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of

cure" thus has substantial application to vegetation management, particularly in

situations where the probability of re-establishment of desired species

composition and soil cover may be quite low once a change has occurred. Abrupt

transitions between various states of vegetation composition may be triggered by

stochastic events related to the vagaries of climate, seed dispersal, and

seedling establishment. Managers should seek to identify circumstances whereby

desirable transitions can be augmented and facilitated and undesirable

tansitions mitigated or avoided. Westoby et al. (1989) liken grazing management

to a continuous game where the object is to seize opportunities and avoid

hazards. Such a philosphopy is based on timing and flexibility rather than

fixed policy. In systems where climatic variability is the rule rather than the

exception, situations conducive to vegetation improvement or deterioration may

arise infrequently and unexpectedly. Failure to recognize and respond to either

situation constitutes missed opportunity. If the potential for transition to

undesirable states is ignored, long-lasting, potentially irreversible impacts

can result. Conversely, progressive and flexible management schemes which can

capitalize on infrequent windows of opportunity for vegetation improvement or

livestock production may realize long-term benefits in livestock and wildlife

productivity.

Ref ID : 1608

311. Archer, S., Zimmerman, L.J., and Tieszen, L.L. Ecological characterization

as a foundation for prediction of plains village tradition site locations in

central South Dakota. North American Archaeologist 3(4):311-332, 1982.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : MODELS; PLANT PHYSIOLOGY; ARCHAEOLOGY

Abstract : Uplands Plains Village archaeological sites in Central South Dakota

located by pedestrian survey, were described in terms of physiography and

vegetation. Randomly selected, non-archaeological sites were similarly

described and served to define the universe sites available for habitation along

the east bank of the Missouri River/Lake Francis Case Reservoir. Physiographic

differences between actual and "simulated" archaeological sites suggested that

several factors were important in predicting the location of upland

archaeological sites. These included location in Agropyron smithii dominated

plant communities with less than 50 of slope, and southern exposure. The model

accounts for nearly 70 per cent of all variability associated with location and

distribution of archaelogical sites.

Ref ID : 893

312. Archer, S.F. Economic perspectives on the ecology of the Karoo. Paper

delivered at the Arid Zone Ecology Forum Conference held in Beaufort West, 5-8

September 1994. 1994.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : ECONOMIC ASPECTS; KAROO DESERTIFICATION; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY;

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; DROUGHT; FOREST; POLLUTION; MICROCLIMATE; POLICY

Abstract : South Africa's arid zones receive little attention from economists,

less from economic policy-makers, and least of all from members of either group

with an environmental concern. This neglect is unfortunate. Concepts of

sustainable development coupled to recent attempts at expressing 'green' values

in economic terms, as well as suggested methods of valuation, may contribute to

closing the gap. This paper introduces certain of these ideas in anticipation

that they throw light on the ecology of the Karoo. The essence of

sustainability is the protection of the natural resource base - maintaining it

intact or even enhanced - to ensure that per capita consumption potential does

not decline across generations. In arid environments sustainability includes

'resilience within agroecosystems to external shocks such as drought and pests'.

Total economic value comprises four categories. First, the direct value of a

natural resource can come from its harvesting for consumption or its deployment

as an input in production. It can also make non-consumptive contributions to

human welfare, e.g. education and recreation, including photography, bird

watching, hiking and so on. Second, there are indirect values, most commonly

identified with the tropical rain forests but in principle present in all

habitats, for instance the cycling of nutrients, watershed protection, reduction

in air pollution and sustaining the micro-climate of a region. Third, option

value is a category introduced 30 years ago to express the benefit placed on

natural assets and environments by those not intending to make use of them now

but nevertheless willing to pay to preserve a future option. It is an insurance

premium against irreversible loss of one potential resource use. Knowing the

asset will be there if the option should be exercised has monetary value.

Finally, existence value has entered the literature most recently. Some

individuals derive satisfaction from the knowledge that natural resources are

available to other people, living now and in the future. Others hold that every

species and habitat has a claim to survival. Both groups are willing to pay for

measures that preserve such natural assets, particularly those in short supply,

declining or unique. The economic interest of these categories - and the

problems in their estimation - arises because of the last three, so-called

'environmental values', tend not to pass through the market. They are subject

to 'market failure'. This has at least three consequences: (1) direct use

values tend to dominate resource use decisions, (2) intervention in one form or

another by the state is required, and (3) other valuation techniques need

devising. These include travel cost methods, hedonic pricing and contingent

evaluations (e.g. surveys of respondent preferences). Does this framework throw

light on the policy thinking needed for SA's arid zones? Like other medium-sized

economies with relatively low levels of per captia income, our productive

activities are based heavily on natural resource use. Exports are still

predominatly mining and agricultural, the terms-of-trade (price of imports in

terms of exports) have moved against us, and the burden of paying interest and

redemption of our foreign debt is growing. This adds up to pressure for

intensified use of natural assets and reluctance to include ecological costs in

the price structure. More sensitive environmental approaches in the arid zones

will have to face this unapalatable constraint.

Ref ID : 1599

313. Archer, S.R. Handbook of Agricultural Metreorology, Oxford University

Press, 1994.pp. 24-255.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : FAUNA; CLIMATE; DROUGHT; FLOODS; LAND USE; CLIMATE CHANGE;

DEFORESTATION; ENERGY; MODELS; REMOTE SENSING; PLANT-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS; GLOBAL

CHANGE; HYDROMETEOROLOGY; GRAZING EFFECTS; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL; VEGETATION

CHANGE

Notes : One of the challenges facing ecologists today, is that of understanding

ecosystem processes well enough to recognise fluctuation associated with natural

climatic variability and distinguish it from directional changes associated with

human exploitation, activities of native fauna, or changes signaling a

transition into new climatic regimes. Climatic phenomena, ecosystem processes,

and human activities interact and are interdependent upon one another.

Controversy surrounding the supposition that increasing CO2 in the atmosphere is

causing changes in global climate is largely caused by the way assumptions

regarding process controls and interactions are handled. Climatic processes and

events clearly influence human activities directly via extreme events such as

droughts, floods, hurricanes, and tornadoes. In other instances the effects of

climate on human activity may be realised indirectly via the influence of

climate on ecosystem processes which control productivity and species abundance

and distribution. At the same time, human activities may influence climatic

processes either directly or indirectly. Industrial and land use practices have

increased concentrations of greenhouse gases (CO2,CH4,N2O,CFC's etc.) and have

reduced stratospheric ozone, creating potential for climate change. Human

activities also affect climate indirectly via their impacts of ecosystem

processes. Deforestation and grazing, for example, influence species

composition, primary productivity, and organic matter decomposition, thereby

altering the liberation and sequestering of CO2. Changes in land cover and

ecosystem processes may further influence climate by altering surface energy

flux and biophysical properties (albedo, temperature, evapotranspiration, air

circulation, etc.) and by changing levels of particulate input (e.g. dust) into

the atmosphere. The linkage of these various processes at local and regional

levels may eventually be manifested at global levels. Correct representations

of ecosystem proceses have potential for substantially improving the performace

of global and mesoscale circulation models. However, for this to occur,

ecologists must "scale up" research in time and space to address regional

processes which provide critical inputs to climate models. This will require

development and integration of new paradigms, new techniques and approaches in

modeling and remote sensing and extensive collaboration with atmospheric

scientists and climatologists. Research on this topic must also consider human

activities, both as they contribute to and as they are affected by global

environmental change.

Ref ID : 2343

314. ARDRI Report on the Socio-economic surveys of the five Administrative areas

bordering on the Mjanyana state farm, Engcobo. This report can be found at

ARDRI, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa.Anonymous Alice, South

Africa:University of Fort Hare. , 1987.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; CISKEI; RURAL DEVELOPMENT;

CULTIVATION; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS; LAND TENURE;

SUBSIDIES; STOCKING RATE; EROSION

Notes : The purpose of this report was to conduct a socio-economic survey of

five administrative areas - Debera, Thosa, Xonye, Mjanyana and Qulugu. A

random, unstructured 10% sample of the total households in each administrative

area was taken. A total of 96% households were used in the sample. Information

on the social and economic characteristics was collected using a structured

questionnaire. About 65% of the adults are uneducated and 95% have not had any

skills or vocational training. Only 65% of households have arable riches of an

average of 4.7 ha, each less than 1/2 of which is being cultivated. There is

problem of infrastructure in services. The study area is best suited for a semi

livestock component. Home gardens must be encouraged. For agriculture to

perform in the district the following measures have to be taken: 1. secondary

and tertiary roads and extended road network; 2. clinics and health and medical

services, marketing problems; 3. minimize soil erosion, arable allocations and

tenure; 4. reduction of overstocking, encourage sheep and wool production by

subsidizing shearing sheds; 5. upgrading sheep and goat flocks; 6. upgrade

cattle herds; 7. encourage poultry; 8. improved and training services. See ref.

I.D. no 2339.

Ref ID : 2380

315. ARDRI The Lima development report.Anonymous , 1989.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : TRANSKEI; STATISTICS; RAINFALL; FOREST; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; CLIMATE;

SOIL PROPERTIES; VELD CONDITION; GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES; AID

Notes : The purpose of the study was to investigate the Lima project and its

impact on the Lima community at the Zithulele area of Mqanduli district in

Transkei. A sample questionnaire was conducted in June-July 1988. The [?10]

administrative areas were randomly selected and within a selected administrative

area, 30 households were surveyed. A total of 300 households were surveyed with

300 questions asked to provide both baseline household statistics and attitudes

of the respondents. The 850 km2 Lima area was found to be endowed with natural

resources of scenery, reliable rainfall, warm temperatures, useable soils, veld

grazing and forest products. The Bomvana people are conservative rural dwellers

but with a willingness to change. The project area is on the development

periphery of Transkei, that is, physical development of roads, power and

communications are limited in distribution and quality. In all aspects a

development agency such as Lima is found to be vital, because in addition to

direct development initiatives, it has a role in supplementing thinly stretched

government services and in creating linkages with outside sources of

information, training, funds and support. This report can be obtained from

ARDRI, University of Fort Hare. See ref. I.D. no: 2339.

Ref ID : 2379

316. ARDRI The Lima development report.Anonymous , 1989.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : POPULATION; TRANSKEI; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; RURAL DEVELOPMENT;

LABOUR; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; CULTIVATION

Notes : The purpose of the study was to assist the people of the Lima project

area in the development of their human and natural resources, thus enabling them

to improve their quality of life. Thirty households were surveyed and

questionnaires were administered to them within two headmen's administrative

areas, selected from each of the four tribal authority areas. Secondary sources

of information were also used. The report contains information on the physical

and socio-economic factors of the project area. Population densities are high

(an average of 100 persons per square kilometre ranging from 50 to 150 persons

per square kilometre) for rural areas but too low to sustain urban development.

The resident population consists predominantly of old men, adult women and

children. Working age men are absent as migrant labourers, leaving consequent

social stresses of separation, divorce, alcoholism, children left without

relatives and illegitimate births. Young men form the major employment potential

of the project area but they are unable to find jobs in a narrowing market. The

average wage of employed heads of housholds was R306 per annum. 68% are

employed as mine workers and 25% as labourers. Cattle, forms a major part of

the family's working capital. 90% of the population planted maize with

widespread use of fertilizer and manure (63%), planters (59%), cultivators (39%)

as well as ploughing (88%), while 74% of mixed cropping persists. This report

can be obtained from the Document Centre, Agriculture (UFH). See ref. I.D. no:

2339.

Ref ID : 2412

317. ARDRI Kubusi development report.Anonymous University of Fort Hare:ARDRI. ,

1991.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : POPULATION; LAND USE; CISKEI; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; SOCIOECONOMIC

ASPECTS; LABOUR

Notes : The purpose of this study was to initiate a process of human and

physical development that will increasingly contribute to the mobility and

satisfaction of Kubusi residents. THte study was carried out by use of a survey

questionnaire designed to capture information sought from the respondents.

Based on the population estimates, a representative sample of the target

population was drawn. Basically results of the reserach relate to many

variables of interest. These are demographic in nature such as household heads,

income, payment of rent by tenants, employment and land use, pensioners etc.

This report is obtainable from the University of Fort Hare. See ref. I.D. no:

2339.

Ref ID : 2498

318. ARDRI Land Use Systems Research. Community Range lands and Global Change.

University of Fort Hare:ARDRI. , 1996.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : LAND USE; GLOBAL CHANGE; COMMUNAL AREA; EASTERN CAPE; CLIMATE;

CISKEI; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE; RURAL DEVELOPMENT;

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Notes : The purpose of the study was to develop a better understanding of land

use systems in the communal areas of the Central Eastern Cape and to identify

and document processes that result in sustainable improvements of these systems

through farmer-researcher interactions. The participatory rural appraisal (PRA)

technique was adopted for the study in three communities, namely Hlosini,

Koloni, and Guquka. The study revealed that field and garden crops are very

important for rural livelihoods. 116 farmers participated in the PRA on crop

production. 67% had access to a field and 86% had a home garden. At Koloni and

Guquka home gardens were about 500 square metres. Eight field crops and 18 home

gardens were identified. The main field crop was maize followed by beans, peas,

pumpkins, potato and melon. Potato, cabbage, maize and onion were important

garden crops. Crop selection was influenced by agro-ecological conditions.

Potato featured prominently at Guquka, the wettest site and sorghum mainly at

Hlosini, where the climate is very dry. Various livestock, cattle, pigs, sheep

and chicken are kept. This pamphlet is obtainable from ARDRI, University of

Fort Hare. See ID ref. no 2339.

Ref ID : 2532

319. ARDRI Rural livelihoods in the central Eastern Cape: findings in Gukuqa and

Koloni. ARDRI News , 1998.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : EASTERN CAPE; LAND USE; COMMUNAL AREA; CISKEI; RURAL DEVELOPMENT;

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; SETTLEMENT IMPACTS; ECONOMIC

ASPECTS; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

Notes : The purpose of the study was to develop a better understanding of land

use systems in communal areas of central Eastern Cape and to identify and

document processes that result in sustainable improvements of these systems

through farmer/researcher interactions. Research data was collected through

socio-economic survey. The report of the study contains information on

migration patterns and external sources of income. Migration patterns have

changed. Rural urban migration by males have made way for migration by entire

families. Most migrants from Koloni households moved to East Lndon, but at

Gukuqa, the majority migrated to Cape Town. It was found that about four out of

every ten residences were never occupied during the day on weekends. Households

depended mostly on external sources of income for livelihoods. At Koloni,

salaries and wages were the main sources of income followed by claims against

the state (old-age pensions). This order was reversed at Guquka. Of all income

generating activities, agriculture was the most important. This article is

availabe at ARDRI, University of Fort Hare. See also ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 2471

320. ARDRI, ISER, and BRC Border-Ciskei study on land reform: land related

issues of Gwili-Gwili, Rabula, Gxulu, KKIS and Elukhanyweni.Anonymous

Alice:ARDRI, University of Fort Hare. , 1995.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : IRRIGATION; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; CISKEI; EASTERN CAPE; GOVERNMENT

INITIATIVES; LAND USE; SOIL PROPERTIES; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; SOCIOECONOMIC

ASPECTS

Notes : The purpose was to study the impact of government on the relationship

between the source land and the users of this resource. A case study was

conducted in the areas of Gwili-Gwili, Rabula, Gxulu, Keiskammahoek Irrigation

Scheme and Elukhanyweni. Community meetings and individual interviews were

conducted. The study found that poor soils, poor performance of crop

production, and poor transport systems are the major problems in Gwili-Gwili.

In Rabula inadequate service provision, shortage of farm inputs and lack of job

opportunities were among the important problems. In Gxulu, lack of farmer

participation in rural development planning, lack of decision-making rights and

lack of farmer support services and information provision systems were cited.

In the Keiskammahoek Irrigation Scheme, the sudden withdrawal of support by

government and the lack of yield-increasing inputs such as fertilisers are the

most imphasised problems. At Elukhanyweni the two main problems identified were

access to grazing land and difficulty to make a decent living from the small

food plots. This report is available at ARDRI, University of Fort Hare. See ID

ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 1612

321. Arianoutsou-Faraggitaki, M. Desertification by overgrazing in Greece: The

case of Lesvos island. Journal of Arid Environments 9:237-242, 1985.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : GRAZING EFFECTS; EROSION; FIRE; LAND DEGRADATION; SOIL EROSION

Abstract : Grazing activities on Lesvos island (NE Aegean), especially its

western part, have resulted in drastic degradation of the landscape. Species

like Quercus macrolepis have gradually disappeared, with thorny, unpalatable

species now dominating. Soil coverage is gradually becoming thinner, and the

first signs of erosion have begun to appear. Fires, started by shepherds for

pasture improvement act synergistically to the above process. The case of this

island exemplifies the problems of overcoming desertification due to overgrazing

in Greece.

Ref ID : 1098

322. Arnold, M. and Dewees, P. Rethinking approaches to tree management by

farmers. Natural resource perspectives, number 26.Anonymous Farrington J.

London:Overseas Development Institute (ODI). :1-4, 1998.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : AGROFORESTRY; DEFORESTATION; POLICY; FORESTRY

Notes : This paper examines farm households' tree management strategies and

proposes a framework for policy interventions. Farmers plant or retain some