Islamic land

.
[FN44]. Alexandre Kedar, The Legal Transformation of Ethnic Geography: Israeli Law and the Palestinian Landholder 1948-1967, 33 N.Y.U. J. Int'l L. & Pol. 923 (2001); Question of Palestine: Legal Aspects (Document 4), A compilation of papers presented at the United Nations seminars on the question of Palestine in 1980-1986 (UN Doc. 1992); David Kretzmer, The Legal Status of the Arabs in Israel 49-76 (Ch. 4, "Control of Land") (1990); Daniel Williams, Another Arab Population Grows Angry at Israel, Washington Post, Mar. 20, 2002, at A23 (Bedouin land claims); Oren Yiftachel, "Ethnocracy": The Politics of Judaizing Israel/Palestine, 6 Constellations 364 (1999) (settler society ethno-nationalism).
[FN45]. Hanoch Dagan & Michael A. Heller, The Liberal Commons, 110 Yale L.J. 549 (2001) (intestate succession, partition action, land speculation have diminished Black ownership of agricultural land in the U.S.A.).
[FN46]. Thus, Algerian Ordinance No. 62,020 of Aug. 24, 1962 concerning the protection and the management of vacant properties.
[FN47]. Compare, e.g., Agreement between the Government of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Governement of Ireland, April 10, 1998, U.K.-Ir., especially art. 1(vi) (The two Governments "recognise the birthright of all the people of Northern Ireland to identify themselves and be accepted as Irish or British, or both").
[FN48]. But see Izhak Englard, Law and Religion in Israel, 35 Am. J. Comp. L. 185, 204 (1987) (noting that secular Zionists have concurred in reception of traditional Jewish law as a matter of "national renaissance").
[FN49]. Basic Law: Israel Lands, 5720-1960 No. 31, July 19, 1960, 14 L.S.I. 48 and Israel Lands Administration Law 5720-1960, No. 33, July 25, 1960, 14 L.S.I. 50. Cf. Jordanian law of 1973 "for Preventing the Sale of Immoveable Property to the Enemy", (repealed as to Jordan by Law of 1995) applied also by the Palestinian Authority to land under their control (Human Rights Watch Report v. 13, No. 4, Justice Undermined: Balancing Security and Human Rights in the Palestinian Justice System at 24 (2001)). For prior law see Abraham Granott (Granovsky), The Land System in Palestine (1952).
[FN50]. See, e.g., Abu Fadl, Greater and Lesser Jihad, 26 Nida'ul Islam (1999), available at .
[FN51]. Alfred Morabia, Le Gihad dans l'Islam medieval 337 (1993) (informal translation). Compare Abul Ala al-Mawdudi, Tafhim al-Qur'an [Towards Understanding the Qur'an, 1988] 169 (1950) (Jihad is not qital (war); it has wider connotations embracing every kind of striving in the way of Allah).
[FN52]. Quoted and translated in Bustami Muhammad Khir, Concept of Sovereignty in Contemporary Islamic Movements, 1 Encounters 5, 22-23 (1995).
[FN53]. Qutb supra note 9 at 51; Robert Worth, The Deep Intellectual Roots of Islamic Terror, N.Y. Times, Oct. 13, 2001, at A13 ("A minority Islamic tradition with a wide following and a deep history.")
[FN54]. Umsalama Muhammad Salih, The Political Thought of Ibn Taymiyya (1980) (unpublished thesis, Edinburgh); Sivan, supra note 26 at 21-28, 94-102 ("The genius of Qutb consisted in his grounding his argument in the thought of a prominent medieval thinker, Ibn Taymiyya (1268-1328), and of some of his votaries, through an act of 'creative interpretation,"' Id. at 94).
[FN55]. Barbara Daly Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 (1982); Celia W. Dugger, Indian Town's Seed Grew Into the Taliban's Code, N.Y. Times, Feb. 23, 2002, at A3; Julian West & Jo Knowsley, British Muslims Ordered to Adopt Taliban teachings, Sunday Telegraph (London), July 27, 1997, at 13 (Deoband adherents, 20% of Britain's 1.5 million Muslims, "given to issuing fatwas ... regulating tiny details of behaviour").
[FN56]. Nawaf E. Obaid, The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders, 6 Middle East Quarterly 51, (1999); Usha Sanyal, Are Wahhabis Kafirs? Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and His Sword of the Haramayn, in Islamic Legal Interpretation 24 (Muhammed Khalid Masud et al. eds., 1996). On the Salafiyya, see Michael Scott Doran, Somebody Else's Civil War, 81 Foreign Affairs, Jan.-Feb. 2002, at 106 published by the Council on Foreign Affairs.
[FN57]. Robert Irwin, Is This the Man Who Inspired Bin Laden?, The Guardian (London), Nov. 1, 2001, sec. G2, at 8.
[FN58]. Abou el Fadl, supra note 1.
[FN59]. Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam 23-42 (Anthony F. Roberts trans., 2002).
[FN60]. Peter Ford, Listening for Islam's Silent Majority, Christian Science Monitor, Nov. 5, 2001, at 1. Thus: Executive Order 13224: Blocking Property and Prohibiting Transactions with Persons who Commit, Threaten to Commit, or Support Terrorism, 66 Fed. Reg. 49079, Sept. 23, 2001.
[FN61]. Lawrence Rosen, The Justice of Islam: Comparative Perspectives on Islamic Law and Society 200-15 (2000), Ch. 12, "Islam and Islamic culture in the courts of the United States"; Michael Detmold, Provocation to Murder: Sovereignty and Multiculture, 19 Sydney L. Rev. 1 (1997). A defense of shari'a is scarcely of help in a prosecution for terrorist activity, e.g.: United States v. Bin Laden, 92 F. Supp. 2d 225 (S.D.N.Y. 2000); United States v. Salameh, 152 F.3d 88 (2d Cir. 1998); People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran v. Department of State 182 F.3d 17 (D.C.C. 1999). On religious defense to civil restraints and criminal prosecution, see Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. City of Hialeah, 508 U.S. 520 (1993); United States v. Bauer, 84 F.3d 1549 (9th Cir. 1996).
[FN62]. Thus, the reservations and declarations of states signatories to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. 1249 U.N.T.S. 13, No. 20378 (1981); and note U.N., International Law Commission, Report on the Work of its Fifty-third Session (2001), UNGAOR, 55th Sess., Supp. No. 10 (A/56/10), Chapt. 6, "Reservations to Treaties" . Article 24 of the 1990 Cairo Declaration of Human Rights, declares that "All rights and freedoms mentioned in this statement are subject to the Islamic Shari'a" .
[FN63]. President Mohammad Khatami, Speech to Iranian-Americans at the United Nations, (Sept. 20, 1998) (reported by the Associated Press, Sept. 20, 1998 at 4:25 p.m. EDT); Yucel Yesilgoz, Double Standard: The Turkish State and Racist Violence, in Racist Violence in Europe 179-93 (Tore Björe & Rob Witte, eds. 1993); Charte nationale algérienne, 1976; Diasporas: A World of Exiles, Economist, Jan. 2, 2003, at 31.
[FN64]. France-Algeria Social Security Convention, 1298 U.N.T.S. 25, No. 23722 (1983), art. 42; Baaziz v. Baaziz, Cass. 1e civ., Feb. 17 1982, 72 Rev. crit., 1983, p. 275, note Lequette (Fr.), 110 Clunet 606 (1983), note Kahn. (prosecution of Algerian for bigamy); Bambose v. Daniel, [1955] A.C. 107 (P.C., Nig.) (succession of children of nine wives of Nigerian); B v. B, & D v. C, Cass. 1e civ., Jan. 3, 1980 & Dec. 18, 1979, 1980 Dalloz. Jur., p. 549, obs. Poisson-Drocourt (Fr.); 107 Rev. du not. belge 514 (1981); R. v. Department of Health, ex parte Misra, Times Law Rep., Apr. 15, 1995; Estate of Bir, 83 Cal. App. 2d 256, 188 P.2d 499 (1948). For an exhaustive analysis, see Béatrice Bourdelois, Mariage polygamique et droit positif français (1993). For a case where the shari'a rule on child custody was displaced by African customary law see Cameroon Supreme Court, Case No. 2/L, Oct. 10, 1985, Juridis Info. 1991, No. 8, p. 53, obs. F. Anoukaha, comment Brigitte Djuidje, Pluralisme législatif cameroonais et droit international privé at 16 (1999). Cf. the doctrine of ordre public atténué in the enforcement of foreign judgments where the underlying law might, if the case were being decided on its merits, have conflicted with the enforcing jurisdiction's public policy, 1 Henri Batiffol & Paul Lagarde, Droit international privé ß ß 360-361 (8th ed. 1993); Bernard Audit, Droit international privé ß ß 309, 466 (1992); Yvon Loussouarn & Pierre Bourel, Droit international privé ß ß 259-261 (5th ed. 1996).
[FN65]. But see Act of Settlement, 1701 12 & 13 Will. III, c. 2 (Eng): the heir to the British throne may not be, nor marry, a Roman Catholic.
[FN66]. Cf. Co-operative Committee on Japanese Canadians v. Attorney General for Canada, [1947] A.C. 87. A total of 3,964 persons of Japanese race, including Canadian nationals, were deported from Canada beginning May 31, 1946; Klapprott v. United States, 335 U.S. 601 (1949) (a German American Bund case).
[FN67]. As to conflict of human rights norms, see John Strawson, A Western Question to the Middle East: "Is There a Human Rights Discourse in Islam?", 19 Arab Stud. Q., Winter 1997, at 31 ("Western discourses on human rights have become increasingly bold during the last two decades in claiming an exclusive Western heritage for human rights, which, it is argued, is located in 'Western civilization"'); Abdelwahab El-Affendi, Islam and Human Rights: The Lessons from Sudan, 91 Muslim World 481 (2001) ("double standards are being applied"); Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Universal Versus Islamic Human Rights: A Clash of Cultures or a Clash With a Construct?, 15 Mich. J. Int'l L. 307 (1993); Yash Ghai, Universalism and Relativism: Human Rights as a Framework for Negotiating Interethnic Claims, 21 Cardozo L.R. 1095 (2000).
[FN68]. Sami Awad Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh, Les mouvements islamistes et les droits de l'homme 7-8 (1998).
[FN69]. Viz. Ambiguity in the use of the term "al Aqsa", Qur'an, 17:1 ("to the remote mosque of which We have blessed the precincts"), the al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem having been constructed in 715 A.D; see Martin Gilbert, Jerusalem: A Tale of One City, The Competing Claims as Seen Through History, New Republic, Nov. 14, 1994, at 17. See also "On the Beginning of the Building of the Mosque al-Aqsa," The Book of Arousing Souls, Charles D. Matthews, Palestine, Mohammedan Holy Land 2-4 (1949); and cf. Nüsse, supra note 20 at 39 and n. 100, citing also Filastin al-Muslima, July 1990, at 31.
[FN70]. Qur'an, 5:120, 39:6 (inter alia); Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam 30 (1988); and see, e.g., Constitution of Iran of Oct. 24, 1979, art. 2. See, on the adoption by Hamas of the non-Muslim concepts of watan and wataniyya (nation and nationalism) Nüsse supra note 20 at 49, citing Hamas Covenant, art. 12; Hillel Frisch, The Case of Religious Emulation: The Nationalization of Universal Religious Doctrine in the Palestinian Fundamentalist Movement, 12 Middle East Focus, Fall 1990, at 18-25.
[FN71]. Qur'an, 49:10; Farooq Hassan, The Concept of State and Law in Islam 40 (1981); Hassan Afchar. "The Muslim Conception of Law", The Different Conceptions of the Law, 2 International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, The Legal Systems of the World: Their Comparison and Unification 84, 98-99 (1974).
[FN72]. Abdelouahed Belkeziz, La nationalité dans les Etats arabes 3-4 (1963).
[FN73]. Jean S. Saba, L'Islam et la nationalité 45 (1931).
[FN74]. Farooq Hassan, The Concept of State and Law in Islam, 36 (1981).
[FN75]. Jean S. Saba, L'Islam et la nationalité 65-80 (1931).
[FN76]. Hatti Cherif of Gul Hanné, Nov. 3, 1839, & Hatti Humayun of Feb. 18, 1856, reprinted in George Young, Corps de droit ottoman vol. 1 at 29 & vol. 2 at 3 (1905).
[FN77]. Text reprinted at 1907 Rev. du dr. internat. 27.
[FN78]. Pierre Arminjon, De la nationalité dans l'empire ottoman et spécialement en Egypte 14-67 (1903).
[FN79]. Law No. 1312, Resmi-Gazeta No. 904, June 4, 1928, M.E. Salem, La loi nouvelle sur la nationalité turque, 1929 Rev. du dr. internat. 25.
[FN80]. Louis Milliot, La conception de l'Etat et l'ordre légal dans l'Islam, 75 Rec. des cours 591 (1949 II).
[FN81]. Law of Sept. 24, 1926 in the Hejaz, now Western Saudi Arabia.
[FN82]. Paul Ghali, Les Nationalités detachées de l'Empire Ottoman à la suite de la Guerre 192 (1934) (informal translation).
[FN83]. Constitution of Saudi Arabia, Mar. 1992, art. 1.
[FN84]. Id., art. 6.
[FN85]. Abdelouahed Belkeziz, La Nationalité dans les États arabes (1963); Nawaf A. Salam, The Emergence of Citizenship in Islamdom, 12 Arab L.Q. 125 (1997).
[FN86]. M.A. Muqtedar Kahn, American Muslims and the Moral Dilemmas of Citizenship, Wash. Rep. Middle E. Affairs, May 2000 at 61; Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam 185-204 (2002); Abou el Fadl, supra note 1 at 52 .
[FN87]. See e.g., Abu-Hasan al-Mawardi, al-Ahkam as-Sultaniyyah [The Laws of Islamic Governance], (Asadullah Yate trans., 1996); Earl I.J. Rosenthal, Political Thought in Medieval Islam: an Introductory Outline (1962); A.K.S. Lambton, Islamic Political Thought, in Legacy of Islam 404 (Joseph Schact ed., 2d ed. 1974). On the Islamist vision of democracy, see Nüsse, supra note 20, 75-78.
[FN88]. Kawakita v. United States, 343 U.S. 717 (1952) (Japanese-American POW guard convicted of capital treason); Joyce v. Director of Public Prosecutions, [1946] A.C. 347 (Eng.) (conviction under the Treason Act, 1351 for participation in Nazi propaganda activities); In re Mittermaier, Cass. ital., 2 May 1946, 13 Ann. Dig. 60, 69-I Foro italiano 137 (1944) (conviction for treason; option for German nationality under the Treaty of St-Germain did not divest the accused of his obligation to Italy).
[FN89]. Blackmer v. United States, 284 U.S. 421, 437 (1932) (Writ of certiorari; fines imposed on a U.S. citizen resident in France for disobeying a subpoena to testify in a criminal case); Albert Gouffre de Lapradelle, Affaire Henry M. Blackmer extradition (1929); United States v. Lansky, 496 F.2d 1063 (5th Cir. 1974).
[FN90]. R. v. Aeneas MacDonald, (1747) 18 St. Tr. 858.
[FN91]. Ottoman nationality code of Jan. 19, 1869, reprinted at 2 George Young, Corps de droit ottoman 223 (1905).
[FN92]. F.A. Mann, The Present Validity of Nazi Nationality Laws, 89 L.Q. Rev. 89, 194 (1973); Oppenheim v. Cattermole, [1976] A.C. 249 (H.L.); Allied Control Council (Kommandatura), Law No. 1 of Sept. 20, 1945 Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, 1945, No. 1, at 3; also Law No. 12 of Nov. 17, 1949, Official Gazette, No. 4, at 36 on the nullity of certain provisions of National-Socialist legislation relative to natives of France and Luxembourg.
[FN93]. Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253, 268 (1967).
[FN94]. Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Jan. 19, 1984, No. OC-4/84, Amendments to the naturalization provisions of the Constitution of Costa Rica Advisory Opinion, 5 Human Rights L.J. 161 (1984); Written question No. 788/90, O.J.E.C., Dec. 24, 1990, C 325, at 42. The Council again emphasized its incompetence in matters of the grant and withdrawal of nationality, even in the face of Community provisions on the free movement of citizens, in response to question No. 628/92, Jul. 3, 1992, O.J.E.C., Aug. 10, 1992, C-202/58.
[FN95]. Levita-Mühlstein v. Dépt. féd. de justice et police, Trib. féd., June 14, 1946, 72-I A.T.F. 407 (1946) and Rosenthal v. Eidg. Justiz- und Polizeidepartment, Trib. féd., Oct. 8, 1948, 74-I A.T.F. 346 (1948); and compare, on the revocation of Soviet nationality, Tcherniak v. Tcherniak, Trib. Féd. (2d Civ. Sect.), June 15, 1928, 54-II A.T.F. 225 (1928), 4 Ann. Dig. 62, 56 Clunet 208 (1929), note Noël-Henry, reasoning rejected in Lempert v. Bonfol, 60 Déc. de la Cour féd. suisse 67 (1934), 7 Ann. Dig. 290.
[FN96]. Vatican: Legge sulla cittadinanza ed il soggiorno, June 7, 1929, 21 Acta Apostolicae Sedis Supplemento 14 (1929), France: Ordonnance No. 62-825 of July 21, 1962 as modified, Journal Officiel, July 22, 1962 & July 11, 1965 (status of Français Musulmans).
[FN97]. E.g., Syria (Human Rights Watch, Memorandum to the UN Human Rights Committee, 57th Sess., Apr. 2001) and see UN Sub-Commission: The right of everyone to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his own country-final report prepared by C.L.C. Mubanga-Chipoya UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1988/35 (June 20, 1988); Cf. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Dec. 10, 1948, art. 15(2): "No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality"; UN Commission on Human Rights res. 1998/48, Apr. 17, 1998, and 1999/28, Apr. 26, 1999, on arbitrary deprivation of nationality. Zadvydas v. Davis, 533 U.S. 678 (2001) concerned specimen cases where alien convicts susceptible to deportation were refused recognition as nationals of the countries from which they had departed.
[FN98]. R. v. Secretary of State for the F.C.O., ex p. Bancoult, [2001] Q.B. 1067 (D.C.).
[FN99]. Thomas D. Grant, The Recognition of States: Law and Practice in Debate and Evolution (1999).
[FN100]. ß 7. Eugene Cotran, Some Legal Aspects of the Formation of the United Arab Republic and the United Arab States, 8 Int'l & Comp. L.Q., 346, 382 (1959).
[FN101]. Jacqueline Bendeddouche, Notion de nationalité et nationalité algérienne 126 (thesis, Algiers, 1971, pub. 1982) (informal translation); see Louis Gardet, La cité musulmane: Vie sociale et politique (4th ed. 1976) for the definition of umma as framework for the community in spiritual and social terms.
[FN102]. Jordanian Law No. 7 of 1963, amending the Jordanian Nationality Law, No. 6 of 1954.
[FN103]. Abd-el-Hakim, 12 Rev. internat. dr. internat. publique 550 (1905), 32 Clunet 1035 (1905), 1908-II Sirey 121, note de Boek; comment, Jean S. Saba, L'Islam et la nationalité 81-82 (1931) (informal translation).
[FN104]. Saba, Supra note 103 at 562.
[FN105]. A. Kessmat Elgeddawy, Relations entre systèmes confessionnel et laïque en droit international privé 46 (1971).
[FN106]. Nawaf A. Salam, The Emergence of Citizenship in Islamdom, 12 Arab L.Q. 125, 134 (1997).
[FN107]. Abou el Fadl, supra note 1, at 150-51.
[FN108]. Louisiana Purchase Treaty, Apr. 30, 1803, U.S.-Fr., 8 Stat. 200, T.S. 86; Alaska Cession Treaty, Mar. 30, 1867, U.S.-Russ. 15 Stat. 539, T.S. 301.
[FN109]. Treaty to Resolve Pending Boundary Differences and Maintain the Rio Grande and Colorado River as the International Boundary, Nov. 23, 1970, U.S.-Mex. T.I.A.S. 7313, 23 U.S.T. 371.
[FN110]. Andrew Grossman, Nationality and the Unrecognised State, 50 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 849 (2001).
[FN111]. 103 P.L.150, 107 Stat. 1510 (1993).
[FN112]. Rosebud Sioux Tribe v. Kneip, 430 U.S. 584 (1977) (treaty obligations); Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States, 348 U.S. 272 (1955) (rights in land).
[FN113]. Bibliography at