Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

changes in the veld vegetation and soils. The interpretation of the remotely

sensed data for such monitoring purposes will depend upon the use of various

vegetation indices, pixel modelling and appropriate statistical tests. The

parameters of interest for veld condition must be identified and a means of

measuring them either directly or indirectly developed. The paper describes an

approach to the use of remotely sensed data to accomplish veld monitoring.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : REMOTE SENSING; MONITORING; VELD CONDITION; VELD MANAGEMENT

Ref ID : 1859

1974. Turner, J.R. and Tainton, N.M. Individual animal performance in relation

to herbage mass and stocking rate in the Natal Sour Sandveld. Journal of the

Grasslands Society of Southern Africa 6(4):183-185, 1989.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : STOCKING RATE; RAINFALL

Abstract : Grazing trials were established at two sites in the Natal Sour

Sandveld. The objective of this article was to present the patterns in

individual animal performance in relation to herbage mass and stocking rate for

the period November 1986 to September 1987. Rainfall exceeded the mean annual

rainfall for Site 1 and was well below average for Site 2. Rainfall at Site 1

exceeded that at Site 2 by 329 mm. Distinct patterns in herbage mass were seen

during the season. A grazing cut-off was established at 2 000 kg/ha of herbage

mass. Herbage mass seldom exceeded 2 400 kg/ha in grazed camps. A quantity

limitation was evident for most of the growing season. The relationship between

animal performance and stocking rate was linear but the slopes of the

relationships differed.

Ref ID : 1844

1975. Turner, J.R. and Tainton, N.M. Interrelationships between veld condition,

herbage mass, stocking rate and animal performance in the Tall Grassland of

Natal. Journal of the Grasslands Society of Southern Africa 6(4):175-182, 1989.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : VELD CONDITION; STOCKING RATE; GRASSLAND; RAINFALL; MODELS

Abstract : Grazing rials were established at three sites in the Tall Grassveld

of Natal. The objectives were to determine (a) patterns in herbage mass in

relation to veld condition, stocking rate and commencement of spring grazing,

and (b) animal performance in relation to herbage availability and stocking rate

for the period November 1986 to September 1987. Rainfall exceeded the mean

annual rainfall and, for moderate condition veld in particular, was very

favourably distributed. Distinct patterns in herbage availability were seen

during the season. A multiple linear regression model was developed for

determining peak herbage mass (HM) in April from veld condition (VCI), stocking

rate (SR) and time that grazing commenced in spring (T) (r=0,71; P<0,01). HM

was positively related to VCI and delayed T and negatively related to SR.

Seasonal growth phases in cattle were similar for different sites despite their

spatial separation and differences in veld condition. It was essentially only

the magnitude of mass loss or gain that varied. No linear relationships existed

between SR and average daily gain (ADG). A multiple linear regression model was

developed for determining ADG from SR, HM and the initial mass of the animals

(IM) (r=0,93; P<0,01). ADG was positively related to IM and negatively related

to SR and HM.

Ref ID : 1861

1976. Turner, J.R. and Tainton, N.M. A conceptual stocking rate model for the

moderately dry mixed and sourveld grazing regions of Natal. Journal of the

Grasslands Society of Southern Africa 7(3):201-203, 1990.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : STOCKING RATE; MODELS

Abstract : Results for the 1986/87 season from 15 grazing trials situated at

five sites were used to develop a qualitative model describing the relationships

between stocking rate and herbage mass and between stocking rate and individual

animal performance. Although it cannot be used for predicting stocking rate, it

should prove useful for conceptualizing grass utilization levels in grazing

management both for maximizing individual animal performance and for acceptable

sward utilization.

Ref ID : 1863

1977. Turner, J.R. and Tainton, N.M. A comparison of four different standards of

reference for the animal unit for determining stocking rate. Journal of the

Grasslands Society of Southern Africa 7(3):204-207, 1990.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : STOCKING RATE

Abstract : No single standard of reference for the animal unit (AU) for

determining stocking rates has materialized. Often, therefore, it is not clear

which standard of reference for the AU or which method of determining stock rate

has been used in the presentation of research results. A comparison is made of

four different standards of reference for the AU, namely: 1. the individual

animal; 2. animal biomass; 3. metabolic mass; and 4. the Large Stock Unit (LAU).

In comparing these methods, as the standard of reference is able to characterize

animals more accurately, their simplicity decreases but generality of

application increases. The generality of application should be the primary

factor influencing the choice of a standard of reference for the AU. However,

to avoid prescription on which standard of reference and method should be used

for determining stocking rate, a simple descriptive notation is proposed.

Ref ID : 2490

1978. Turner, S. Sustainable adoption of land restoration technologies: when,

why and how? This paper was presented to the Desert Magins programme workshop on

Appropriate Restoration Technologies in South Africa, Potchefstroom. This is

occasional paper no. 9.Anonymous Cape Town:Programme for Land and Agrarian

Studies, School of Government, University of Western Cape. 9, 1999.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : RESTORATION; LAND DEGRADATION; LABOUR; LAND USE; ECONOMIC ASPECTS;

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES; POLICY; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS;

SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Notes : The author concludes by saying that the obvious argument running through

the paper is that sustainable land restoration will be accomplished by land

users, and not by any outside agency. The role of governments, NGOs and other

such outsiders is to stimulate, inform and facilitate the process of adoption by

land users. The first essential step in achieving the sustainable adoption of

land restoration technologies is therefore to establish how land users in any

particular area perceive the land degradation problem -if they perceive it as a

problem at all - and to compare those local perceptions with our own, outside

concerns. If, as will often be the case, there is a difference, then we have to

understand why. Only when we understand all the technical, economic, social and

institutional dimensions of land users' perception of land degradation will we

have a chance of supporting land restoration effectively. The second key

feature of an effective approach must be appreciation that the design, learning

and adoption processes with regard to land restoration technologies work best

from within, and often fail when imposed or taught from outside. Once again,

our role as outsiders should be as supporters, stimulators and facilitators of a

process that will often combine the conventionally separate domains of

'research' and 'extension'. land users will innovate in the sphere of land

restoration - as in other areas of agriculture - when they see and hear of

success by their peers. Those land users who have autonomously succeeded in

sustainable land restoration are the stars we must seek and from whom we must

encourage others to learn. How many successful South African case studies could

we identify at this workshop? Thirdly, we must accept that land restoration and

maintenance prosper when those who do them, profit from them. The profit motive

is the best driving force for sustainable land restoration. 'Profit' is

meaningful at many scales. It may mean the extra bags of harvest that provide

an adequate diet for the family over otherwise hungry months; or it may mean the

extra income that makes it possible to pay off the loan on the tractor a year or

two early. This argument for the profit motive may seem unattractive to those

who have seen farm land badly degraded over a few years by commercial operators

seeking quick profits. But human nature decrees that very few of us will ever

spend the necessary amounts of time, money and labour on land restoration just

for the sake of 'the environment'. The challenge we face is to find and promote

ways of making land restoration and sustainable farming practice profitable in

themselves. As some farmers have shown, it can be done. If we are to achieve

our goal in land restoration, land users must achieve sustainable production

technologies. These technologies will prevent land degradation and if practised

on previously degraded land, help restore its productivity. Unless they are

heavily subsidised, which in this day and age is unlikely, people wil not

restore and conserve the land just for the sake of it. They will gladly do so

for the sake of production and profit.

Ref ID : 611

1979. Tyson, P.D. Climate and desertification in southern Africa. Geojournal

Supplement 2:3-10, 1981.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : CLIMATE; DESERTIFICATION ASSESSMENT; SOUTHERN AFRICA; CLIMATE CHANGE

Ref ID : 669

1980. Tyson, P.D. Climatic change and variability in southern Africa, Cape

Town:Oxford University Press, 1986.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CLIMATE CHANGE; SOUTHERN AFRICA; RAINFALL

Ref ID : 406

1981. Tyson, P.D. Recent developments in the modelling of the future climate of

southern Africa. South African Journal of Science 89:494-505, 1993.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : MODELS; HYDROMETEOROLOGY; RAINFALL; SOUTHERN AFRICA; DROUGHT; CLIMATE

Abstract : Climatic change in southern Africa over the last two millennia will

be reviewed. Atmospheric processes and circulation changes modulating recent

climatic change in the region will be considered. Present-day drought

conditions will be modelled from sea-surface temperature variations. Finally,

the most up-to-date general circulation model simulations of possible future

equilibrium and transient changes of climate over southern Africa arising out of

greenhouse warming over the next 50 years or so will be presented.

Ref ID : 2186

1982. Tyson, P.D., Kruger, F.J., and Louw, C.W. Atmospheric pollution and its

implications in the Eastern Transvaal Highveld.Anonymous Pretoria:Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research. 150, 1988.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : POLLUTION

Notes : South African National Scientific Programmes Report no. 150.

Ref ID : 1252

1983. U.N.E.P, Goverment of the Republic of Kenya, and Royal Netherlands

Goverments National land degradation and mapping in Kenya. Nairobi:United

Nations, 1997.pp. iii-144.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND DEGRADATION

Ref ID : 2086

1984. Umgeni Water Riparian zone rehabilitation study - Midmar Dam

Catchment.Anonymous Pietermaritzburg:MMB Consulting Engineers Inc. M0480/1,

1997.

Reprint : Not in File,

Notes : Umgeni Water Report M0480/1.

Ref ID : 2232

1985. UNCOD Draft plan of action to combat desertification. UN Conference on

Desertification, Nairobi.Anonymous Anonymous Nairobi:UNEP. , 1977.

Reprint : Not in File,

Notes : Document no. A/CONF.74/L.36.

Ref ID : 2233

1986. UNEP World atlas of desertification, Sevenoaks:Edward Arnold, 1993.

Reprint : Not in File,

Ref ID : 1966

1987. UNEP and ISRIC The world map on status of human-induced soil degradation.

Nairobi:UNEP. , 1990.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : MAPS

Ref ID : 2187

1988. Uys, M.C., Goetsch, R.-A., and O'Keeffe, J.H. National biomonitoring

programme for riverine ecosystems: ecological indicators, a review and

recommendations.Anonymous Pretoria:Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. 4,

1996.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : WATER QUALITY; FORESTRY

Notes : National Biomonitoring Programme Report Series no. 4, Institute for

Water Quality Studies, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry.

Ref ID : 2566

1989. Van Averbeke, W. Farmer priorities in small-scale agriculture in the

Eastern Cape: a researcher's perception. Workshop Paper.Anonymous Anonymous ,

1999.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : EASTERN CAPE; CISKEI; LAND TENURE; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; ECONOMIC

ASPECTS; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL

Notes : The purpose of the paper was to illustrate how the past has influenced

the current attitudes and activities of small-scale farmers in the Eastern Cape

today. The paper was prepared by reviewing literature. Rural farmers in the

Eastern Cape depend mainly on external sources of income for their livelihoods.

At Koloni village external sources of household income include remittances

(10.5%), claims against the state (27.3%), salaries and wages (33.3%), and

income from agriculture constitute 11.9%. At Guquka village remittances

consisuted 13.1%, claims against the state 40.2%, salaries and wages 36.7% and

agriculture 4.4%. The paper reveals that in the former Ciskei, the use of

arable land for crop production had reached an unprecedented low by the mid-

1990s. Priorities for small-scale farming include market security, land tenure,

re-capitalization and "Agri-culture". This paper is obtainable from the Faculty

of Agriculture, University of Fort Hare. See also ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 2495

1990. Van Averbeke, W. and De Lange, A.O. Agro-ecological conditions and land

use. In: Regional overview of land reform-related issues in the Eastern Cape

Province: Summarizing report (A report commissioned by LAPC, Johannesburg),

edited by De Wett, C. and Van Averbeke, W.University of Fort Hare:ARDRI, 1995,

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : LAND USE; EASTERN CAPE; LAND REFORM; CISKEI; TRANSKEI; COMMUNAL AREA;

GENDER ASPECTS; ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Notes : The initial purpose of the study was to determine the agro-ecological

conditions and land use in the Eastern Cape. The findings of the study were

then included in the regional overview of issues relevant to a possible future

of land reform programme in the Eastern Cape. The research method consisted of

fieldwork and surveys supported by secondary sources of information. The report

indicates that communal farming is practised on 74% of the agricultural land in

the former Ciskei and 84% in the former Transkei. The communal areas consist of

293 "locations" administrative areas and approximately 650 villages ranging in

size from 50 to more than 1000 households. Women (mostly widows) head a large

number of households in the former Ciskei. The proportion of households with

access to this resource and their average holdings were as follows: arable land

(44%; 2.8 ha), home gardens (50%), cattle (31%), sheep (25%; 17), goats

(59%;12), poultry (73%; 11) and pigs (46%; 2). A major proportion of the

average household income (88%) consists of a combination of salaries and wages

(42%) remittances (29%) and pensions (17%). All other income (self-employed,

trade, agriculture etc.) contributed only 12% on average. This document is

obtainable from ARDRI at the university of Fort Hare. See also ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 2552

1991. Van Averbeke, W., M'marete, C.K., Igodan, C., and Belete, A. An

investigation into food plot production at irrigation schemes in central Eastern

Cape (former Ciskei). Technical Research Report.Anonymous , 1998.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : IRRIGATION; EASTERN CAPE; CISKEI; ECONOMIC ASPECTS; RURAL

DEVELOPMENT; POLICY; INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTION

Notes : Irrigation schemes in the former Ciskei and Transkei did not bring about

expected social and economic development. This raises doubts about irrigation

being a suitable option for rural development in these regions. The objectives

of this study were to determine the physical, infrastructural, economic,

institutional and social factors of food plot production at irrigation schemes

in central Eastern Cape (former Ciskei). It also aimed at analysing and

assessing the above factors, as well as attempted to formulate guidelines for

irrigation policy development. The objectives were pursued by means of an

investigation consisting of two phases. During the first phase, secondary

sources of information were consulted with a view to identifying the range of

factors that influence food plot production. The results of the first phase

were used for developing a research tool for the second phase of the study,

which consisted of a questionnaire survey administered to 269 plot holding

households. The survey covered six irrigation schemes in the fomer Ciskei,

where small-scale production is being practised, namely, schemes at Tyefu (TIS),

Shiloh (SIS), upper Gxulu at Keiskammahoek (KIS), HACOP near Balfour (HAIS),

Zanyokwe (ZIS) and Horseshoe (HOIS). Overall, 90 - 95% of the food plot area at

the six schemes was planted with three crops only, namely maize, potatoes and

cabbage. At schemes with small plots (0,25 ha or less) all three crops were

prominent. They were also grown as part of a rotation system. In schemes with

large plots, cabbage was usually the main crop. The study identified the main

constraints in irrigated food plot production to be delays in ploughing (causing

long fallow periods), theft of produce, ineffective plant pest control, water

supply problems, absence of effective extension, and in some cases, limited

access to markets. This report is obtainable from the Water Research

Commission, Pretoria. See also ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 2375

1992. Van Averbeke, W. and Marais, J.N. Sunflower as a cash crop for small

farmers in central Ciskei. Ciskei Agricultural Journal, 2nd Quarter , 1988.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : CISKEI; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; CULTIVATION; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL;

SOIL CONSERVATION

Notes : The purpose of the study was to investigate the option of sunflower as a

cash crop in contrast to maize and sorghum, and also to assess the technologies

which are likely to be appropriate for small farmers. In order to assess the

long-term yield potential of maize, sorghum and sunflower under central Ciskei

cropping conditions, field trials were conducted during the past 8 years on 3

ecotypes, i.e. Alice Jozini, Alice Rosemead and Alice Williamson. Data from

this experiment were used for the analysis. In Alice Jozini, a crop of

sunflowers resulted in a negative gross margin only once out of 8 seasons, as

opposed to twice for sorghum and four times for maize. At Alice Rosemead,

sunflower gave the highest returns in 7 of the 8 seasons, and sorghum once.

Maize resulted in a net loss in 5 out of 8 seasons. At Alice Williamson,

sunflower gave the highest gross margin in all seasons. Maize resulted in a

negative gross margin in 3 of the 4 seasons, sorghum twice. In summary, the

analysis showed that sunflower not only gave the highest, but also the most

stable net return. Regarding appropriate technologies for sunflower production

by small farmers, the author gave detailed accounts on soil preparation,

fertiliser, seed, planting, weed control and harvesting. This article can be

obtained from the University of Fort Hare library. See ref. I.D. no: 2339.

Ref ID : 2394

1993. Van Averbeke, W. and Marais, J.N. Production practices for potatoes for

farmers and gardeners in Ciskei. Ciskei Journal for Rural Development , 1989.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : CISKEI; IRRIGATION; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; ECONOMIC ASPECTS;

PRODUCTION POTENTIAL; CULTIVATION; RAINFALL; FARMING SYSTEMS

Notes : The purpose of the study was to investigate the yield decline of

potatoes due to use of second-generation seed, and to devise a practice which

could reduce expenditure on seed potatoes. The study also attempts to provide

some practical advice for prospective potato growers. In 1987 and 1988, field

trials were conducted to assess the yield potential of different commercially

available potato cultivars under irrigated and rainfed conditions on selected

Ciskeian ecotopes. The yield decline from second generation was due to the

string of tubers in an open shed. Storing of tubers in a cold room can help to

overcome the problem. The study also found that, under favourable conditions,

potatoes are capable of very high yields and excellent returns. The author

stressed that good yield of the potato is subject to meeting strict requirements

with regard to management, irrigation, fertilisation and pest control. This

document is obtainable from the University of Fort Hare. See ref. I.D. no:

2339.

Ref ID : 367

1994. Van Coller, A.T. Why is stubble-mulching advocated? Dohne Agric 6(1):39-

40, 1984.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; CULTIVATION; SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE; RUNOFF; AID;

EROSION

Notes : The concept of stubble-mulching is both challenging and pradoxical. It

concerns a crop production process as old as recorded history and as new as

chemical farming and serial seeding. It is as challenging to research sientists

as to farmers who must count every rand spent; and as challenging to machinery

designers, agricultural chemists and those who buy and use their products of new

technology. This article describes the following sub-heads: what is stubble-

mulching; should the soil be worked and how?; stubble-mulching in the control of

weeds; stubble-mulching to manage surface trash or crop residue; how to provide

aeration of the soil; how to prepare a good seedbed; how to shape or level the

cultivated land; how to aid in controlling of insects; how to aid in plant

disease control; how to improve the physical condition of the soil; how to help

combat soil erosion; the incorporation of fertilizers and lime; and how to break

hardpans and to allow better water infiltration.