Origins of religions
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ETHICS: (Also called moral philosophy), Ethics is the science of arriving at moral laws through human reasoning and through a people’s accumulated customs and norms, quite different from moral theology, which is moral laws as commanded by God. AXIOLOGY: This is the philosophical study of human values. Ethics and Aesthetics (Philosophy of Beauty) combined to form Philosophy of Axiology. NEW BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Philosophy of Religion: Philosophy of Religion investigates religious claims such as existence of God, miracles, spiritual forces, creation and evolution, problem of evil, religious experience and religious language, also Immanence, Pantheism, panpsychism providence, revelation etc. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION: Philosophy of Education seeks to understand the major reason and aims why people should undergo education; it also analyses teaching methods i.e (Pedagogy)
ARGUMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD Metaphysics is originally Philosophy of Religion which is perhaps bigger than other major branches of Philosophy since early philosophers like Ptah Hotep, (T.U Nwala: 1977) Ikhnaton, Anaximander, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle etc. all speculated the existence of God (Hutchins R.M: Great Books of the Western World 1960) Early Egyptians and Greek Philosophers spent time on the reality of an ultimate being called God, and on cosmogony i.e. creation. For years philosophical debates centered on the existence of God, creation and the universe. Today we know much more about where we are coming from, while science is explaining religious-claims and at the same time telling us where man is probably going to. Topics under Philosophy of Religion also invovle arguments for the existence of God. The arguments include (I) Ontology (ii) Cosmology / Contingency Religious experience (iv) Teleology i.e. argument from design (v) moral arguments Arguments for the Existence of God: (Please note Quantum Theometry which means the minuteness of spiritual Ontological argument for the existence of God: (by St. Anselem; 1033 CE) it says that if God is not alI powerful and all perfect, then he will not exist; Hence God is perfect that is why he exists, because he is all- powerful, thus he necessarily exists, since he is beyond and before creation. Cosmological and contingency arguments, state that something is responsible for the existence of another thing i.e. the theory of an uncaused first cause that had no beginning, Anaximander also says it is an indestructible infinite being. Something does not create itself which means that contingents are sent by something greater than them. (Saint Thomas Aquinas;.1224 CE). Hence, the existence of an object is a projection of the existence of another object. Religious experience argument: says that it cannot be denied that many people in history claim they had contacts with God, however, can we verify such claims? Teleological or argument from Design: (By William Parley 1841) says that something as complex as a wrist watch has a designer who produced it. (See also the eye and the telescope debate). Hence our much more complex existence must have a designer and maker. The moral argument for the existence of God: (Immanuel Kant) it says that everything good is God. Therefore to love good is to love God; but critics argue that how come a good God created a world full of problems. Note: All the above arguments for the existence of God have critics which may not be treated here. SELECTED INFLUENTIAL EARLY AND MODERN PHILOSOPHERS Thales of Miistus 620 - 546BC (Essence is water).
PHENOMENOLOGY OF RELIGION: (How extra-ordinary is God?) This philosophical concept simply follows Edmund. Husserl’s idea that objects including God should be analyzed exactly the way they appear to the human senses of perception; this which obviously implies that emerging or appearing God should be analyzed by the human mind the way he appears, untainted by preconceived knowledge. PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION Psychold of Religion asks questions: Such as “is Religion a biochemical human behavior or an extra-sensory experience? Is religious mentality a mental problem considering current bloody religious violence and terrorisms? INDUSTRIAL RELIGION (APPLIED THEOLOGY) That Religion is relevant to our industrial age or that Industrial Religion is a new field of study that teaches religious studies students something about all professions like Medicine, Banking, Accountancy, Law, Aviation, Journalism, etc. so that wherever they are employed, they will be well-equipped to handle all related religious and moral issues arising in those professions and establishments, since it is not right for people not trained in religion to continue to handle religious and related issues in a Volatile country like Nigeria. Examples of areas that only religious studies experts should handle are:
BIOCHEMISTRY OF RELIGION PREAMBLE: It states Religious behavior is biochemical and genetic. God exists, but God is not involved in Religion; especially in violent religions. INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY OF RELIGION (CHEMICAL THEOLOGY). The Biochemistry of Religion researches into religious behavior to find out:
Therefore, if religious behaviour is not biochemical and genetic, but divinely inspired, it then means, according to the Logical Rules of Implication (and equivalence) that God sends or inspires people to kill other people simply due to differences in religious beliefs. Hence religious behaviour has to be biochemical and genetic for God to be exonerated from blood-shedding theologies, especially as senseless religious mentality often seem to cohere with low mentality and underdevelopment. OBJECT OF BIOCHEMISTRY RELIGION Therefore the Biochemistry of Religion primarily looks for the chemical and genetic compounds responsible for religious behaviour in order to prove that any Religion or denomination that encourages hatred, fanaticism, extremism, violence and eventual bloodshed, that Religion can never be from God. THE RELIGIOSITY GENE The Religious Gene is not inherited rather it is innate and primordial, which means that it is in all human beings, asevident in the statistical fact that Christians are over 2.5 billion, Muslims over 1.5 billion while Buddhists, Hindus, Jains, mystics, animists and traditionists are over 2 billion: Calculated, it shows that the world’s religious population is over 6 billion, while the world’s total population is about 6.6 billion, which means that the world is about 95% religious, indisputably proving that the Religious Biochemical gene is innately inbuilt into the Human DNA i.e. the building blocks of human life, being the reason why people are adamantly and senselessly religious.
This study searchlights how consistent slow orthodox organ music influence Neurotransmitter actions in the human Central Nervous system to such an extent that it produces what Pentecostalism calls docile spirituality in orthodox Christian behavior. (Orthodox Churches include Catholic and Anglican faiths etc.While Pentecostalism involves new generation exuberant spiritual churches).1 Pentecostalism sees its restless spirituality as metaphysically induced devoid of any neurochemical suggestions (see Frederick Bethlehem and J. March; Introduction to organic chemistry and Biochemistry. New York Saunders; 1984, pp.629, 630.) 2 The absence of solemn music in Religion can often produce hostile religiosity, this which emphasizes the fact that docile spirituality can be more desired than hostile and violent religious behavior. Violent religiosity is often traceable to a statement made in William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, which points out that people like Cassius who do not love music often exhibit dangerous and murderous behavior. Certainly, that Shakespearean statement was vindicated when Cassius and Brutus conspired with other soldiers to murder Julius Caesar. That observation still holds sway as the Neuro-sciences and numerous religious suicide Bombings and terrorism continue to prove that people and religions which have no traditions of music, especially solemn music, end up hostile, violent and uncompromising. (Sandra Ackerman (1992) on the Human Brain; Washington; Academy of sciences pp. 1-4. introduction). See also James Kaler; Introduction to Psychology, 4thedition: (Pacific- Grove, Brooks: Cole, l996): on p597, abnormal psychology,e.g. Iranian Shiites flogging blood out of their bodies as acts of Sufi penance
Frederick Bethlehem .& J. March; Introduction to organic chemistry And Biochemistry. New York Saur1ders; 1984, pp629, 630.) (Sandra Ackerman; Discovering the Human Brain; (Washington; Academy of Science; 1992); pp. 1-4. Introduction).3. See also James Kaler; Introduction to Psychology.4 edition: (Pacific Grove. Brooks/Cole, 1996) p597. E.S.C Weiner and J.A Simpson; Oxford. Encyclopedic English Dictionary Oxford, Oxford press, 1989) Music vol. 15. Church of Nigeria, Anglican communion, Ibo liturgical hymnal and chants Translation; Broad Street: CSS Bookshop, reprint 1991) Paul Ala, Which Religion is true, (Owerri; Assemblies; 19856.) William Smallwood; Piano Forte Tutor; (London; F and D LTD; reprint,’ 1990) , pp2-3 Ibid, p2. Atkinson. R.C et al; Introduction to Psychology; 11thedition; Forth worth; Jovanovich; 1993, introduction page. Ogundu C.O; A Philosophical and Religious Analyses of Suicide; (lbadan-Ph.D Thesis; 2000), Brockman R. and Pescantini U. (1991) revised by Father Steven Njure (2004), History of the Catholic Church (Nairobi; Paulines). Eliade M. (1989) Encyclopedia of Religion vols.1-20: (New York: Britannica). Foresman S. (2000), World History from ancient times to the Medieval (Washington: Scott Foresman).
Psychology of religion by Nnaji, 2015, in Biochemistry of Religion, simply means finding out the role of the human brain (Hebrew “Nephesh” = soul) in human religious belief and spiritual activities; particularly if Religious belief is an intrinsic cerebellum-cerebral Neuro-Transmitter (genetic) predispositions or an extrinsic inexplicable human activity (Hebrew “Niphilosapher” Job 5:9, Psalm 139:6); imparted by “Phililiah” (i.e. beyond human control), called Extra-Sensory Perceptions, (ESP) in Psychoanalysis, but called Hallucinations and Delusions in Scientific-Logical Positivism and Empiricism. (Atkinson; 1992, and Ackerman; 1993): Please see Freud and Jung on the human Sub-consciousness. SCHOLALY CONTRIBUTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION ASSISTED BY THE FOLLOWING RESEARCH ASSISSTANTS (ATERE JOHN, SOKWO JAMES, ADAMU B. MUSA, MALIZU LOVELYN). ALLEN BERGIN (1934 - ) Bergin (1980) on "Psychotherapy and Religious Values", is known as a landmark in scholarly acceptance that religious values do, in practice, influence psychotherapy. He received the Distinguished Professional Contributions to Knowledge award from the American Psychological Association in 1989 and was cited as challenging "Psychological Orthodoxy” in emphasizing the importance of values and religion in therapy. KENNETH PARGAMENT (1950) Pargament (1997) in Psychology of Religion and Coping including a 2007 book on Religion and Psychotherapy, and a sustained research program on religious coping. He is professor of Psychology at Bowling Green State University (Ohio, USA), and has published more than 100 papers on the subject of religion and spirituality in psychology. Pargament led the design of a questionnaire called the "RCOPE" to measure Religious Coping strategies. Pargament has distinguished between three types of styles for coping with stress: (1) Collaborative, in which people co-operate with God to deal with stressful events; (2) Deferring, in which people leave everything to God; and (3) Self- directed, in which people do not rely on God and try exclusively to solve problems by their own efforts. He also describes four major stances toward religion that have been adopted by psychotherapists in their work with clients, which he calls the religiously rejectionist, exclusivist, constructivist, and pluralist stances. SIGMUND FREUD (1856–1939) Freud explained the origins of religion in his various writings. In Totem and Taboo, he applied the idea of the Oedipus complex (involving unresolved sexual feelings of, for example, a son toward his mother and hostility toward his father) and postulated its emergence in the primordial stage of human development. In Moses and Monotheism, Freud reconstructed biblical history in accordance with his general theory. His ideas were also developed in The Future of an Illusion. When Freud spoke of religion as an illusion, he maintained that it is a fantasy structure from which a man must be set free if he is to grow to maturity. Freud views the idea of God as being a version of the father image, and religious belief as at bottom infantile and neurotic. Authoritarian religion, Freud believed, is dysfunctional and alienates man from himself. CARL JUNG (1875–1961) Jung adopted a very different posture, one that was more sympathetic to religion and more concerned with a positive appreciation of religious symbolism. Jung considered the question of the metaphysical existence of God to be unanswerable by the psychologist and adopted a kind of agnosticism. Jung postulated, in addition to the human unconsciousness (Pro-Fruedian), the collective unconscious, which is the repository of human experience and which contains "archetypes" (i.e. basic images that are universal in that they recur regardless of culture). The irruption of these images from the unconsciousness into the realm of consciousness he viewed as the basis of religious experience and often of artistic creativity. Some of Jung's writings have been devoted to elucidating some of the archetypal symbols, and include his work in comparative mythology.
William James is regarded by most psychologists of religion as the founder of the field. He served as president of the American Psychological Association, and wrote one of the first psychology textbooks. In the psychology of religion, James' influence endures. His Varieties of Religious Experience is considered to be the classic work in the field, and references to James' ideas are common at professional conferences. James distinguished between institutional religion and personal religion. Institutional religion refers to the religious group or organization, and plays an important part in a society's culture. Personal religion, in which the individual has mystical experience, can be experienced regardless of the culture. James was most interested in understanding personal religious experience. In studying personal religious experiences, James made a distinction between healthy-minded and sick- souled religiousness. Individuals predisposed to healthy-mindedness tend to ignore the evil in the world and focus on the positive and the good. In contrast, individuals predisposed to having a sick-souled religion are unable to ignore evil and suffering, and need a unifying experience, religious or otherwise, to reconcile good and evil. William James' hypothesis of pragmatism stems from the efficacy of religion. If an individual believes in and performs religious activities, and those actions happen to work, then that practice appears the proper choice for the individual. However, if the processes of religion have little efficacy, then there is no rationality for continuing the practice. RUDOLF OTTO (1869–1937) German Protestant theologian Otto in, “The Idea of the Holy” (Published first in 1917 as Das Heilige), defines the concept of the holy as that which is numinous. Otto explained the numinous as a "non- rational, non-sensory experience or feeling whose primary and immediate object is outside the self." It is a mystery (Latin: mysterium tremendum) that is both fascinating (fascinans) and terrifying at the same time; A mystery that causes trembling and fascination, attempting to explain that inexpressible and perhaps supernatural emotional reaction of wonder drawing us to seemingly ordinary and/or religious experiences of grace. This sense of emotional wonder appears evident at the root of all religious experiences. Through this emotional wonder, we suspend our rational mind for non-rational possibilities. It also sets a paradigm for the study of religion that focuses on the need to realise the religious as a non- reducible, original category in its own right. This paradigm was under much attack between approximately 1950 and 1990 but has made a strong comeback since then.
Hegel described all systems of Religion, Philosophy, and Social Science as expressions of the basic urge of consciousness to learn about itself and its surroundings, and record its findings and hypotheses. Thus, Religion is only a form of that search for knowledge, within which humans record various experiences and reflections. Others compiling and categorizing these writings in various ways, which forms the consolidated worldview as articulated by that Religion, Philosophy, and Social Science, etc. His work, The Phenomenology of Spirit was a study of how various types of writing and thinking draw from and re-combine with the individual and group experiences of various places and times, influencing the current forms of knowledge and worldviews that are operative in a population. This activity is the functioning of an incomplete group mind, where each individual is accessing the recorded wisdom of others. His works often include detailed descriptions of the psychological motivations involved in thought and behaviour, e.g., the struggle of a community or nation to know itself and thus correctly govern itself. In Hegel's system, Religion is one of the major repositories of wisdom to be used in these struggles, representing a huge body of recollections from humanity's past in various stages of its development. ALFRED ADLER (1870–1937) Alfred Adler, (Ex-Freudian), emphasised the role of goals and motivation in his Individual Psychology. One of Adler's most famous ideas is that we try to compensate for inferiorities that we perceive in ourselves. A lack of power often lies at the root of feelings of inferiority. One way that religion enters into this picture is through our beliefs in God, which are characteristic of our tendency to strive for perfection and superiority. For example, in many religions, God is considered to be perfect and omnipotent, and commands people likewise to be perfect. If we, too, achieve perfection, we become one with God. By identifying with God in this way, we compensate for our imperfections and feelings of inferiority. Our ideas about God are important indicators of how we view the world. According to Adler, these ideas have changed over time, as our vision of the world – and our place in it – has changed. Consider this example that Adler offers; the traditional belief that people were placed deliberately on earth as God's ultimate creation is being replaced with the idea that people have evolved by natural selection. This coincides with a view of God not as a real being, but as an abstract representation of nature's forces. In this way our view of God has changed from one that was concrete and specific to one that is more general. From Adler's vantage point, this is a relatively ineffective perception of God because it is so general that it fails to convey a strong sense of direction and purpose. An important thing for Adler is that God (or the idea of God) motivates people to act, and that those actions do have real consequences for ourselves and for others. Our view of God is important because it embodies our goals and directs our social interactions. Compared to science, another social movement, religion is more efficient because it motivates people more effectively. According to Adler, only when science begins to capture the same religious fevour, and promotes the welfare of all segments of society, will the two be more equal in peoples' eyes. Yüklə 0,98 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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