The Arabic Language

Further reading
General survey of language contacts involving Arabic in Thomason (2007) and 
Versteegh (2010). An important collection on Arabic in al-ʾAndalus, Daghestan, 
Bactria, Israel, Nigeria and Turkey is Owens (2000).
On the use of the Arabic script for other languages (Persian, Kurdish, Pashto, 
Kashmiri, Urdu, Sindhi, Ottoman Turkish, Uyghur, Malay, Berber) and the adapta
-
tions it underwent in the process, see Kaye (1996) and Daniels (2014). On the 
ajami 
adaptations of Arabic script in Africa,
 
see Mumin (2009, 2014); a collection 
of articles on various cases of 
ajami 
in Africa involving, among other languages, 
Berber, Swahili, Kanuri, Fulfulde, Mande, Afrikaans, was edited by Mumin and 
Versteegh (2014). On the special situation of Arabic-Afrikaans, see Davids (2011).
On the linguistic situation in al-ʾAndalus, see Wright (1982: 151–61) and Zwartjes 
(1997: 5–22). On the language of the Mozarabs and the relations between Romance 
and Arabic, see Galmés de Fuentes (1983; Romance loans in Pedro de Alcalá, pp. 
213–44; cf. also Corriente 1988). The standard grammar of Andalusian Arabic is 
Corriente (1977), of which a revised edition was published in 2013. Arabic in 
Sicily: Agiùs (1996). Dozy and Engelmann (1869) produced a list of Arabic words 
in Spanish and Portuguese; this has now been superseded by Corriente’s (2008) 
dictionary of Arabic loanwords in Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan; for Arabic 
words in French, see Devic (1876); for Arabic words in English, see Cannon (1994).
For general information on the spread of Islam in Africa, see Fisher (1970); a 
collection of articles on Arabic influence in African languages, 
Langue arabe et 
langues africaines 
appeared in 1983. On Islamic scholarship in sub-Saharan Africa, 
see Reichmuth (2000); on the role of the 
madrasa
s in west Africa, see Brenner (2000); 
on the role of Arabic in Mali as a gateway to knowledge, see Bouwman (2005). A 
comparison between Arabic loanwords in Swahili and Hausa is presented by Baldi 

---

332
The Arabic Language
(1988). On Arabic loanwords in Hausa, see Greenberg (1947); Hausa–Arabic bilin
-
gualism in Sudan is dealt with by Abu-Manga (1999). On the influence of Arabic 
in Swahili and the development of Arabo-Swahili culture, see Haddad (1983) and 
Lodhi (1986); the effect of loanwords on Swahili nominal classes is analysed by 
Zawawi (1979). For the development of Swahili literate culture, see Vierke (2014). 
The examples from Fulfulde have been taken from Labatut (1983). On Malagasy, 
see Beaujard (1998) and Versteegh (2001); the standard work on Sorabe texts and 
the secret language 
kalamo 
is Rajaonarimanana (1990).
The Arabic element in Persian is traditionally treated as a separate component 
in the standard grammars, for instance, in Lambton (1961: 181–250) and Alavi and 
Lorenz (1972: 167–70, 174–8, 181–3), from which the examples have been taken. 
On the semantics of Arabic loans in Persian, see Asbaghi (1987) and Perry (1991). 
On language purism and the work of the 
Farhangestān
,
 
see Karimi-Hakkak (1989) 
and Paul (2010). The role played by Persian in the spreading of Islam is discussed 
by Fragner (2006).
Arabic words in Ottoman Turkish are dealt with in all standard grammars of 
Ottoman Turkish, for example, Kissling (1960, especially pp. 45, 67, 152f., 243f.), 
from whom the examples quoted here are taken; on Arabic and Persian loans 
in Ottoman Turkish, see Battersby (1966); on the Turkish campaign for purity 
of the language, see Zürcher (1985); a comparison between the language reform 
movement in Turkey and Iran is made by Perry (2004).
On the language question in the Indian subcontinent, see Kanungo (1962). The 
examples of loan pairs in Hindi have been taken from Pořízka (1972). On the two 
varieties of Bengali, see Dil (1972). On Arwi literature in Tamil, see Tschacher 
(2001), on the nature of Arabic loanwords in Tamil, see Tschacher (2009).
On the role of Arabic in the first Malay grammars, see Ogloblin (1981); on 
Arabic loanwords in Indonesian, see Versteegh (2003) and van Dam (2010); a 
dictionary of all loanwords was compiled by Jones (2007), from which most of 
the examples in the present chapter were taken. A general survey on the role of 
Arabic in Indonesia is given by Meuleman (1994) and Campbell (2007). On Arabic 
loanwords in Acehnese, see Al-Harbi (1991). The ‘Meccan’ system of transmission 
of knowledge in Indonesia is analysed by Laffan (2008).
Not all contact situations with Arabic could be dealt with here. For the linguistic 
situation in Israel, see Kinberg and Talmon (1994); on the Arabic component in 
Hebrew slang, see Kornblueth and Aynor (1974); on language attitudes and varia
-
tion in Palestinian communities, see Amara (1999). The substratal influence of the 
languages that were spoken in the Islamic empire at the time of the Arab conquests 
has been dealt with above (Chapter 8, pp. 140–4). Arabic has also influenced these 
languages and in some cases continues to influence them: on Arabic influence in 
Coptic, see Richter (2001); on Nubian–Arabic bilingualism and the influence of 
Arabic in Nubian, see Rouchdy (1991); on Arabic influence in Berber, see Chaker 
(1984), Aguadé and Behnstedt (2006); on Arabic influence in Berber 
literary culture, 
see van den Boogert (1997). On Arabisms in Mehri, see Rubin (2010: 307–9).

---