Title of paper

5. References

Gupta, J. 2011. Developing Countries: Trapped in the Web of Sustainable Development Governance. In Dilling, O. / M. Herberg / G. Winter (eds.). 2011. Transnational Administrative Rule-Making: Performance, Legal Effects, and Legitimacy. Oxford: 305 – 329.
Beyerlin, U. / T. Marauhn. 2011. International Environmental Law. Oxford. Hart Publishing.
MMSD / The Mining Minerals and Sustainable Development Project. 2002. Breaking new Grounds: Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development. London.
Environmental and Social Impacts of Uranium Mining

By Bertchen Kohrs

1. Introduction

All mining activities have an impact on the environment and its people. Uranium mining adds additional threat by means of radioactivity and chemical toxicity of the heavy metal uranium.
Much uranium mining is taking place in the protected National Namib Naukluft Park and the West Coast Recreation Area, both attractive tourist destinations, a fact often not properly addressed in environmental impact assessments. The entire area has recently been proclaimed as the Dorob National Park by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. According to the park’s policy, no heavy industrial development should take place in protected areas.
A strategic environment and economic management plan has to be in place for exploration of minerals, construction and operation of mines, decommissioning of mines and handling of mining waste. This is the responsibility of the Namibian government and the companies that come to mine in Namibia. A strategic environmental assessment (SEA) for the uranium rush has been performed. A strategic environmental management plan (SEMP) is currently under scrutiny. This endeavour should have been accomplished long before the uranium rush knocked Namibia. A criss-cross of water pipes, power lines, roads and prospecting sites have already irreversible disfigured the once beautiful and pristine Namib Desert.

2. Soil and biodiversity

There is always a land-use conflict between mining and conservation, with mining currently enjoying priority in Namibia. The result is limited options for other uses of the land, such as for tourism and farming. Another serious impact is the degradation of the bio-physical environment resulting in loss of habitat and biodiversity.
Albert Einstein warned more than half a century ago: “If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.” His words of warning point to the importance of the protection of biodiversity; the loss of one species interrupts the natural cycle and can have fatal effects on many other species, including humans. Radiation is harmful to all plant and animal life on the planet, and the genetic heritage developed over millions of years can be lost forever if radiation is allowed to mutate and damage animal and plant genes.
In Namibia, the unique lichen fields east of Wlozkasbaken are under severe threat due to the desalination plant and the water pipe line from the coast to the Trekkopje mine. Lichen fields are a very peculiar phenomenon which have developed in evolutionary time scales and require a very specific combination of environmental factors. There is nothing similar elsewhere on this planet! These lichen fields should be seen as another living fossil like the famous Welwitchia mirabilis, which might also be under threat through mining operations (Jürgens, 2007: 15).

3. Radiation

Uranium tailings contain a variety of contaminants that have to be safely contained for hundreds of thousands of years, due to the long half-life of some of the decay products, to avoid environmental hazards. Due to the mechanical milling of the ore, the material is no longer rock-like but more sand-like, thus becoming susceptible for dispersion by wind into the environment, which enhances the spreading of radon, which as a decay product of uranium is a tasteless, odourless and colourless gas. The long half-life of some of the radio nuclides makes it necessary to safely store wastes from the mining and milling process for a very long time.
The tailings pose serious challenges. Can they be met? There are many open questions:

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  Can the future be foreseen for thousands of years?
  
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  Can it be assured that in thousands of years people will still understand the dangers of tailings from uranium mines and leave them alone?
  
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  Can containments be designed to last thousands of years?
  
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  Can contamination of groundwater be prevented?
  
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  Can contaminated water be de-contaminated?
  

4. Water

In Namibia, water is generally a scarce natural resource used intensively in mining activities. Rössing Uranium used 3.1 million m³ of fresh water in 2012, amounting to 0.26 m³ per ton of ore processed. Langer Heinrich water requirements are estimated at 0.87 m³ water per ton of ore processed, that amounts to approximately 1.3 million m³ per year. Trekkopje, the next uranium mine having planned to start full operation in 2013 and now mothballed, expected to have an annual demand of 14 million m³, this being so high because of a different method of uranium extraction. Valencia’s water demand will be 3 million m³ per year. The water has to be supplied by the coastal area and transported via pipeline to the mining sites.
The huge amount of water used during the mining process has an impact on the arid environment of the desert. It changes the eco-system, changes the flow of the riverbeds, the effluent washes away the topsoil, and attracts foreign animal species. The run-off is not clean water, it is contaminated with toxic chemicals used in the leaching process and with radioactive substances. It can contaminate the groundwater and the entire surrounding.
A desalination plant has been constructed at the coast north of Wlozkasbaken as a joint venture between Areva and NamWater. The plant capacity is 20 million m³ per year. The excess capacity has been offered to NamWater. After years of negotiation, an agreement has been signed between NamWater, Areva, Swakop Uranium Mine, Rössing Uranium Mine and Langer Heinrich Uranium Mine on the supply of water from Areva’s desalination plant (The Namibian, 23 July 2013).
Although the residents look forward to the prospect of having ample access to water, it is to be expected that water tariffs for coastal residents will rise once the plant delivers desalinated water to the municipalities. NamWater has embarked on the process of constructing another desalination plant. Desalination of sea water has its own impact on the marine life and needs to be considered carefully.