To the select committee on marine parks in south australia
Yüklə 1,11 Mb.
|
Verity, PG, Smetacek, V & Smayda, TJ (2002) 'Status, trends and the future of the marine pelagic ecosystem', Environmental Conservation 29(2): 207-37. Veron, JEN, Hoegh-Guldberg, H, Lenton, TM, Lough, JM, Obura, D, Pearce-Kelly, P, Sheppard, CRC, Spalding, M, Stafford-Smith, MG & Rogers, AD (2009) 'The coral reef crisis: the critical importance of <350 ppm CO2`', Marine Pollution Bulletin 58: 1428-36. Vlietstra, LS & Parga, JA (2002) 'Long-term changes in the type, but not amount, of ingested plastic particles in short-tailed shearwaters in the...' Marine Pollution Bulletin 44(9): 945-55. Vorobyova, E, Soina, V, Gorlenko, M & al., E (1997) 'The deep cold biosphere: facts and hypothesis', Microbiology Reviews 20: 277-90. Votier, SC, Bearhop, S, Fyfe, R & Furness, RW (2008) 'Temporal and spatial variation in the diet of a marine top predator—links with commercial fisheries', Marine Ecology Progress Series 367: 223-32. Waldman, JR (1999) 'The importance of comparative studies in stock analysis', Fisheries Research 43(1-3): 237-46. Wallace, BP, Heppell, SS, Lewison, RL, Kelez, S & Crowder, LB (2008) 'Impacts of fisheries bycatch on loggerhead turtles worldwide inferred from reproductive value analyses', Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 1076-85. Wallentinus, I & Nyberg, CD (2006) 'Introduced marine organisms as habitat modifiers', Marine Pollution Bulletin 55(7-9): 323-32. Walters, C & Maguire, JJ (1996) 'Lessons for stock assessment from the northern cod collapse', Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 6: 125-37. Walters, C (1997) 'Challenges in adaptive management of riparian and coastal ecosystems', Conservation Ecology 1(2): 1-25. Walters, C (1998) 'Designing fisheries management systems that do not depend on accurate stock assessment', in TJ Pitcher, P Hart & D Pauly (eds), Reinventing fisheries management, Kluwer Academic Publishers, London. Walters, C (2000) 'Impacts of dispersal, ecological interactions, and fishing effort dynamics on efficacy of marine protected areas: how large should protected areas be?' Bulletin of Marine Science 66(3): 745-57. Walters, CJ, Christensen, V, Martell, SJ & Kitchell, JF (2005) 'Possible ecosystem impacts of applying MSY policies from single-species assessment', ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 62(3): 558-68. Walther, G-R, Post, E, Convey, P, Menzel, A, Parmesan, C, Beebee, TJC, Fromentin, J-M, Hoegh-Guldberg, O & Bairlein, F (2002) 'Ecological responses to recent climate change', Nature 416: 389-96. Wang, SC (2003) 'On the continuity of background and mass extinction', Paleobiology 29(4): 455-67. Waples, RS & Gaggiotti, O (2006) 'What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity', Molecular Ecology 15(6): 1419-39. Ward, T, Vanderklift, MA, Nicholls, AO & Kenchington, R (1999) 'Selecting marine reserves using habitats and species assemblages as surrogates for biological diversity', Ecological Applications 9: 691-8. Ward, TJ (2004) 'Marine protected areas in fisheries: design and performance issues', American Fisheries Society Symposium 42: 37-61. Ward, P & Myers, RA (2005) 'Shifts in open-ocean fish communities coinciding with the commencement of commercial fishing', Ecology 86(4): 835-47. Warner, RR, Swearer, SE & Caselle, JE (2000) 'Larval accumulation and retention: implications for the design of marine reserves and essential fish habitat', Bulletin of Marine Science 66(3): 821-30. Wassenberg, TJ, Blaber, SJM, Burridge, CY, Brewer, DT, Salini, JP & Gribble, N (1997) 'The effectiveness of fish and shrimp trawls for sampling fish communities in tropical Australia ', Fisheries Research 30(3): 241-51. Wassenberg, TJ, Burridge, CY, Connell, M & Gribble, N (1998) 'A validation of short-duration scientific tows as a representation of long commercial-length tows: comparing the catch rates, size composition and species composition of prawn trawler bycatch in the far northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia', Fisheries Research 36(1): 35-46. Wassenberg, TJ, Dews, G & Cook, SD (2002) 'The impact of fish trawls on megabenthos (sponges) on the north-west shelf of Australia', Fisheries Research 58: 141-51. Watling, L & Norse, EA (1998) 'Disturbance of the seabed by mobile fishing gear: a comparison to forest clearcutting', Conservation Biology 12: 1180-97. Wayne, GL (2004) 'Ecological Risk Assessment Conceptual Model Formulation for Nonindigenous Species', Risk Analysis 24(4): 847-58. Webb, S (2008) 'Megafauna demography and late Quaternary climatic change in Australia: A predisposition to extinction', Boreas 37(3): 329-45. Weeks, R, Russ, GR, Alcala, A & White, AT (2010) 'Effectiveness of marine protected areas in the Philippines for biodiversity conservation', Conservation Biology 24: 531-40. Weir, CR & Dolman, SJ (2007) 'Comparative Review of the Regional Marine Mammal Mitigation Guidelines Implemented During Industrial Seismic Surveys, and Guidance Towards a Worldwide Standard', Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy 10(1): 1 - 27. Weller, GE (2001) 'Climate change and its impacts on the arctic environment', Memoranda of the National Institute for Polar Research 54 Special Issue: 143-51. Wescott, G (2005) 'Victoria's marine protected areas - 1978 to 2005', Waves 11(2): 29. Wescott, G (2006) 'National Oceans Advisory Group report', Waves 11(4): 15. Wescott, G (2006) 'The long and winding road: The development of a comprehensive, adequate and representative system of highly protected marine protected areas in Victoria, Australia', Ocean & Coastal Management 49(12): 905-22. White, C, Kendall, BE, Gaines, S, Siegel, DA & Costello, C (2008) 'Marine reserve effects on fishery profit', Ecology Letters 11(4): 370-9. Whiteley, AR, Spruell, P & Allendorf, FW (2006) 'Can common species provide valuable information for conservation?' Molecular Ecology 15(10): 2767-86. Whiting, SD (1998) 'Types and sources of marine debris in Fog Bay, northern Australia', Marine Pollution Bulletin 36(11): 904-10. Wiegers, JK, Feder, HM, Mortensen, LS, Shaw, DG, Wilson, VJ & Landis, WG (1998) 'A Regional Multiple-Stressor Rank-Based Ecological Risk Assessment for the Fjord of Port Valdez, Alaska', Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 4: 1125-73. Wignall, PB (2001) 'Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions', Earth-Science Reviews 53(1-2): 1-33. Wilcox, C & Donlan, J (2007) 'Compensatory mitigation as a solution to fisheries bycatch–biodiversity conservation conflicts', Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5(6): 325-31. Williams, JA & West, CJ (2000) 'Environmental weeds in Australia and New Zealand: issues and approaches to management', Austral Ecology 25(5): 425-44. Williams, AT & Tudor, DT (2001) 'Temporal trends in litter dynamics at a pebble pocket beach', Journal of Coastal Research 17(1): 137-45. Williams, A & Bax, N (2002) 'Involving fisher's data in identifying, selecting and designing MPAs: an illustration from Australia's south-east region', paper presented to the ASFB Conference on Aquatic Protected Areas, August 2002, Cairns Australia. Williams, A, Bax, N, Kloser, R, Althaus, F, Barker, B & Keith, G (2008) 'Australia’s deep-water reserve network: implications of false homogeneity for classifying abiotic surrogates of biodiversity', ICES Journal of Marine Science 66(1): 214-24. Williams, A, Bax, NJ, Kloser, RJ, Althaus, F, Barker, B & Keith, G (2009) 'Australia's deep-water reserve network: implications of false homogeneity for classifying abiotic surrogates of biodiversity', ICES J. Mar. Sci. 66(1): 214-24. Williamson, DH, Russ, GR & Ayling, AM (2004) 'No-take marine reserves increase abundance and biomass of reef fish on inshore fringing reefs of the Great Barrier Reef', Environmental Conservation 31(2): 149-59. Willis, TJ, Millar, RB, Babcock, RC & Tolimieri, N (2003) 'Burdens of evidence and the benefits of marine reserves: putting Descartes before des horse?' Environmental Conservation 30(2): 97-103. Willis, TJ, Millar, RB & Babcock, RC (2003) 'Protection of exploited fish in temperate regions: high density and biomass of snapper in northern New Zealand marine reserves', Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 214-7. Willis, TJ & Millar, RB (2005) 'Using marine reserves to estimate fishing mortality', Ecology Letters 8: 47-52. Wilson, J (2002) 'Scientific uncertainty, complex systems and the design of common-pool institutions', in E Ostrom, T Dietz, N Dolsak, PC Stern, S Sonich & EU Weber (eds), The drama of the commons, National Academy Press, Washington DC. Wilson, DC, Ahmed, M, Siar, SV & Kanagaratnam, U (2006) 'Cross-scale linkages and adaptive management: Fisheries co-management in Asia', Marine Policy 30(5): 523-33. Wilson, SK, Burgess, SC, Cheal, AJ, Emslie, M, Fisher, R, Miller, I, Polunin, NVC & Sweatman, HPA (2008) 'Habitat utilization by coral reef fish: implications for specialists vs. generalists in a changing environment', Journal of Animal Ecology 77(2): 220-8. Winberg, PC, Lynch, TP, Murray, A, Jones, AR & Davis, AR (2007) 'The importance of spatial scale for the conservation of tidal flat macrobenthos: An example from New South Wales, Australia', Biological Conservation 134: 310-20. Windle, MJS, Neis, B, Bornstein, S, Binkley, M & Navarro, P (2008) 'Fishing occupational health and safety: A comparison of regulatory regimes and safety outcomes in six countries', Marine Policy 32(4): 701-10. Witman, JD & Sebens, KP (1992) 'Regional variation in fish predation intensity: a historical perspective in the Gulf of Maine', Oecologia 90(3): 305-15. Wolanski, E, Spagnol, S & Williams, D (2004) 'The impact of damming the Ord River on the fine sediment budget in Cambridge Gulf, northwestern Australia', Journal of Coastal Research 20: 801-7. Wood, L (2005) Are we on track?, WWF Global Marine Programme, London. Wood, LJ & Dragicevic, S (2007) 'GIS-based multicriteria evaluation and fuzzy sets to identify priority sites for marine protection', Biodiversity and Conservation 16(9): 2539-58. Woodley, S, Loneragan, NR & Babcock, RC (2010) Report on the Scientific Basis for and the Role of Marine Sanctuaries in Marine Planning, Department of Environment and Conservation, Western Australia, Perth Australia. Worm, B, Lotze, HK, Hillebrand, H & Sommer, U (2002) 'Consumer versus resource control of species diversity and ecosystem functioning', Nature 417: 848-51. Worm, B & Lotze, HK (2006) 'Effects of eutrophication, grazing, and algal blooms on rocky shores', Limnology and Oceanography 51: 569-79. Worm, B, Barbier, EB, Beaumont, N, Duffy, JE, Folke, C, Halpern, BS, Jackson, JBC, Lotze, HK, Micheli, F, Palumbi, SR, Sala, E, Selkoe, KA, Stachowicz, JJ & Watson, R (2006) 'Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services', Science 314: 787-8. Worm, B, Lotze, HK & Myers, RA (2007) 'Ecosystem effects of fishing and whaling in the North Pacific and Atlantic Oceans', in JA Estes, DP deMaster, DF Doak, TM Williams & J Brownell, Robert L. (eds), Whales, whaling and ocean ecosystems, University of California Press, Berkeley. Worm, B, Barbier, EB, Beaumont, N, Duffy, JE, Folke, C, Halpern, BS, Jackson, JBC, Lotze, HK, Micheli, F, Palumbi, SR, Sala, E, Selkoe, KA, Stachowicz, JJ & Watson, R (2007) 'Response to comments on "Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services"', Science 316(1 June): 1285d. Wright, PJ (2007) 'Understanding the maturation process for field investigations of fisheries-induced evolution', Marine Ecology Progress Series 335: 279-83. WWF-Fiji (2005) Weaving the tapestry of Waitui Tabu: briefing paper for a national network of marine protected areas, WWF-Fiji, Nandi. Yasu, EM, Kaufman, L & Vincent, ACJ (2010) 'Assessing ecological changes in and around marine reserves using community perceptions and biological surveys', Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20: 407-18. Young, JW (1999) Potential for impact of large whales on commercial fishing in the South Pacific Ocean, CSIRO Marine Research / IWC paper 51/36, Hobart. Zacharias, MA, Gerber, LR & Hyrenbach, KD (2006) 'Review of the Southern Ocean Sanctuary: Marine Protected Areas in the context of the International Whaling Commission Sanctuary Programme', Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 8(1): 1-12. Zaitsev, YP (1992) 'Recent changes in the trophic structure of the Black Sea', Fisheries Oceanography 1: 180-9. Zhou, S & Shirley, TC (1997) 'Behavioural responses of red king crab to crab pots', Fisheries Research 30(3): 177-89. Zhou, S & Griffiths, SP (2008) 'Sustainability Assessment for Fishing Effects (SAFE): A new quantitative ecological risk assessment method and its application to elasmobranch bycatch in an Australian trawl fishery', Fisheries Research 91(1): 56-68. Zhou, S, Smith, ADM, Punt, AE, Richardson, AJ, Gibbs, M, Fulton, EA, Pascoe, S, Bulman, C, Bayliss, P & Sainsbury, K (2010) 'Ecosystem-based fisheries management requires a change to the selective fishing philosophy', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(Advance issue 30/4/10): 1-5.
Section Four: An overview of the science relating to marine protected areas. The Australian Marine Science Association’s Position Paper on Marine Protected Areas 2008 provides a good overview of the science: (subsections renumbered): 4.1 Preamble: Australia is at the forefront of marine conservation internationally, both in terms of legislation enacted to protect the marine environment, and in terms of the spatial extent of proclaimed marine reserves. The Australian (Commonwealth) Government, and all State and Territory Governments, are committed to the development of a national system of representative marine protected areas (NRSMPA) by 2012 (ANZECC 1999). AMSA is Australia’s largest professional association of marine scientists with over 900 members nationally. The AMSA mission is to advance marine science in Australia. AMSA’s objectives are to:
Marine scientists are not only participants in the NRSMPA through delivering scientific information and advice to assist with the development and evaluation of the protected area network, they are also a key stakeholder group since they use the marine environment for research. AMSA wishes to emphasise the importance of this dual role for marine scientists, because a special effort by governments is needed to include them as stakeholders in the NRSMPA process. Marine protected areas are areas of the ocean or coastal seas, securely reserved and effectively protected from at least some threatsxiii. “Effective protection” focuses on identified values, and a management plan (and budget) should be in place. The level of protection, and the intent of protection can both vary. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) in Queensland is an example of a large protected area (345,000 km2) which contains extensive multiple-use areas (covering 66.6% of the marine park) where a variety of fishing activities are allowed, as well as core areas (covering 33.4% of the marine park) which are protected from all extractive activities. In addition, approximately 45% of the multiple use areas are closed to the most ecologically damaging form of fishing – bottom trawling. The most widely accepted definitions of protected areas are those recommended by the World Conservation Union, or IUCN (Dudley 2008). In their original form they are discussed in an Australian context in IUCN Australia (2000). IUCN categories Ia and Ib are strict no-take areas or sanctuaries, with the categories grading to category VI, incorporating “traditional natural resource management” (Dudley 2008:22). In this paper the word ‘reserve’ is taken to include protected areas in the first four categories, whose purpose is primarily nature conservationxiv. Areas protected from all harvesting are referred to here as “no-take areas”. Marine reserves must not be seen as a substitute for well-managed fisheries – we need both. The use of marine protected areas to protect biodiversity values is well documented, and MPAs have been accepted at the international level as essential marine conservation tools for nearly three decades. Statements suggesting that the biodiversity conservation benefits of no-take marine protected areas have not been demonstrated are incorrect and misguided – as are statements suggesting fishing activities do not present significant threats to marine ecosystems. Moreover, long-established marine reserves, such as major reserves in tropical Queensland and Western Australia, or the Leigh (Goat Island) and Poor Knights reserves in New Zealand, are important tourist attractions, and produce substantial economic benefits for local and regional communities. There are two parts to this document (apart from the preamble). The position statement is the first part, and is intended to be a clear statement of AMSA’s position on marine protected areas – with recommendations. The second part of the paper provides both background and rationale supporting the statement, and is referenced to scientific and policy literature. 4.2 Position statement 4.2.1 AMSA endorses the government’s national representative system of marine protected areas (NRSMPA) program, and encourages its timely completion. This should be done for both present and future generations of Australians, as well as to provide undisturbed habitat for at least a proportion of the plants and animals with which we share this planet. AMSA also identifies (below) key areas where further government efforts are urgently needed to maximise the benefits of the NRSMPA to all Australians. 4.2.2 When an MPA is declared, AMSA believes there should be clearly articulated aims for the MPA, and that the specific MPA be planned for, and managed accordingly. 4.2.3 Australia’s marine biota are poorly studied and in spite of efforts such as the global census of marine life, there are few comprehensive data sets that can be used for MPA design and performance measurement purposes. AMSA encourages governments to invest in taxonomic support and training, ecological modelling studies and especially building national and regional biological data sets, including habitat mapping, to support MPA design, performance measurement and evidence-based decision making. Baseline monitoring before, or at the time of MPA creationxv is a vital tool for the study of long-term MPA effects, and such ongoing studies must be adequately funded. 4.2.4 Similarly, the physical aspects of Australia’s marine environment are poorly studied. For example, modern multibeam sonar bathymetry data have been collected (at mid-2008) over less than 10% of Australia’s EEZ (and over less than 1% of the continental shelf). AMSA encourages governments to invest in building better marine environmental data sets to support all forms of marine management. 4.2.5 In establishing and expanding networks of marine protected areas, consultation with all stakeholders is vital, combined with adequate education, information and awareness programs. Stakeholders should be able to provide a variety of inputs including both baseline information on ecosystemxvi values and usage, as well as the expression of preferences for reservation options. The selection of options, however, must be framed within Australia’s national and international commitments to the protection of biodiversity, and must be based on the best scientific evidence available. Where evidence is inadequate, a precautionary stance must be taken, in line with Australia’s commitment to the precautionary principle (Government of Australia 1992). 4.2.6 Where declaration of MPAs removes substantial and valuable legal entitlements, and where stakeholders suffer significant financial hardship as the result of reserve proclamation, adequate compensation should be paid. 4.2.7 Networks of marine protected areas must be adequately resourced from the start to ensure they are properly maintained and managed, and to protect them from illegal harvesting and other threats. Well-designed scientific monitoring programmes should be part of their management. It is important to document ecosystem changes following protection to provide information to managers and the wider community on their performance. Such baseline information will also help improve our ability to manage the wider marine environment in a productive and sustainable way. 4.2.8 AMSA believes that MPAs are vital for the conservation of Australia’s marine environment and threatened species. AMSA recommends the following:
4.2.9 There are (and will continue to be) costs in establishing the NRSMPA, and it is proper that efforts should be taken to minimise these costs. However these costs are predominantly short-term, and should not overshadow the long-term benefits accruing from an effective national MPA network. It is essential that alternative options put to stakeholders do not compromise the fundamental goals, and essential design principles of the network. 4.2.10 Australia’s marine environment has been impacted by a range of human activities. AMSA considers that the cumulative impact of multiple stressors on the marine environment constitutes a key knowledge gap not adequately addressed by existing scientific programmes. A quantitative assessment of cumulative human impacts is required to underpin comprehensive evidence-based decision making. 4.2.11 While most attention has focussed on the ecological and fisheries values of MPAs, it is also possible that in future MPAs could be created to protect sites of geological or physical oceanographic significance. AMSA encourages consideration of these values. 4.2.12 AMSA has been disappointedxix by the small portions of MPAs zoned as totally protected (no-take) particularly on the continental shelf. Only 0.75% of the South East Region shelf is protected by Commonwealth no-take MPAs, noting that about 6% of the SE Region is shelf (on average around 22% of Australia’s EEZ is continental shelf). The shelf contains important habitats not found elsewhere. AMSA encourages the inclusion of more shelf areas within existing and future MPA networks, and increased use of full (no-take) protection as the main tool to achieve high-quality conservation outcomes.xx 4.2.13 AMSA encourages improved coordination between Commonwealth and State-Territory governments in the design of the NRSMPAs. There is a risk that poor coordination will result in inadequate protection of some ecosystems, particularly those situated near jurisdictional boundaries. Without coordination the placement of MPAs is unlikely to be optimised in terms of cost or effectiveness. 4.2.14 Systematic network design must be based on biological complementarity, and must consider issues of connectivity, efficiency, uncertainty, replication and effectiveness on a regional basis. Issues relating to rare or endangered species, habitats or ecosystems must be considered, as well as critical habitat, and migratory pathways. 4.2.15 Good fisheries management is essential to the protection of marine biodiversity. AMSA supports improved fisheries management in conjunction with the development of MPA networks. Of particular importance is the wide application of the ecosystem and precautionary approaches to the management of both commercial and recreational fisheries. AMSA also notes that Australia is committed to the phase-out of all destructive fishing practices by 2012. 4.2.16 It is unfortunate that Australia lacks an up-to-date consolidated reporting mechanism on protected areas. The collaborative Australian protected area database (CAPAD), maintained by the Commonwealth (at mid-2008) lacked comprehensive information on State marine protected areas past 2004. Further, the database lacks reporting on the extent of protection of marine habitat, ecosystem, geomorphic province, or even bioregion. These are important gaps and should be addressed by the Commonwealth Government as a matter of urgency. 4.2.17 Marine protected areas assist in maintaining healthy ecosystems. Important ecosystem services supplied by the marine environment include the supply of seafood, passive and active recreational opportunities, dilution and assimilation of wastes (including greenhouse gases), the regulation of coastal climate, and vessel passage – almost all depending heavily on healthy marine ecosystems. Yüklə 1,11 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
|