* We propose to use them to assess the S&T policies, new technologies and outcomes instead of using ‘universal’ values
* Access means access to S&T, fruits of S&T and access to information
* Inclusion means inclusion of all sections of society as beneficiaries and meeting their needs so that they enjoy fruits of S&T and also benefit as citizens, consumer
* Equity means equitable distribution and sharing of fruits of S&T and directing S&T to facilitate this
Part of Social conflict
Part of Social conflict
Direction, pace, nature of products: Source of Injustice
What if all good words are there: Poverty, Global disparities, justice etc.
What different types of inequalities?
Unequal outcomes are measured with ideas of access, affordability, distributive justice etc. but no focus on the nature of R&D priorities themselves
Growing role of Private sector.
Sen’s idea of Equality (Inequality Reexamined)
Sen’s idea of Equality (Inequality Reexamined)
Why Equality and What Equality?
‘Equality is judged by comparing some particular aspect of a person (such as income, or wealth, or happiness, or opportunities, or rights, or need-fulfilments) with the same aspect of another person.’
The inherent diversity of human beings means that treating them equally with respect to one such ‘focal variable’ may lead to considerable inequalities in other dimensions.
Then how do we approach this in our project! What examples are there where S&T is used to reduce inequality?
European theory of Social Cohesion (Communitarian S&T Policy)
Importance of S&T was recognized during the colonial rule itself.
Importance of S&T was recognized during the colonial rule itself.
Indigenous efforts for modern science
Harnessing S&T for development in Independent India was a cherished objective.
Support of thinkers, industrialists, scientists and freedom fighters
Two camps on development approach came up one with rapid industrialization, massive projects like dams and modernization of all sectors in industry (Nehru) and the other with local industry and agriculture (Gandhi)
At stake was the issue of values and institutional mechanisms than use/non use of S&T
At stake was the issue of values and institutional mechanisms than use/non use of S&T
Coupled with Five Year Plans the government launched a series of measures to
- Strengthen existing S&T infrastructure IITs etc.
- Establish new ones and developed CSIR as a national body for applied research
- Thrust on higher education in S&T, engineering, agriculture and medicine
- Linked them with nation building and transformation of industry, agriculture and society
Science and Technology Policy Statements (STPS) are the policy tools for the Government of India for stating technology policy objectives and approaches.
Science and Technology Policy Statements (STPS) are the policy tools for the Government of India for stating technology policy objectives and approaches.
Since Independence, three TPS have been issued in 1958, 1983 and 2003.
The 1958 statement was called as Science Policy Statement (SPS) while that of 1983 as Technology Policy Statement (TPS) and that of 2003 as Science and Technology Policy Statement (STPS).
The 2003 document has acknowledged the importance of linking up modern technology with indigenous knowledge base.
Three major concerns which drove specific S&T policies in India were: Science for National Development and Security; Self Reliance and Building ‘Scientific Temper’
Equalisation With Progress And Development
Equalisation With Progress And Development
Science for Basic Needs (TPS 1983 in terms of food, water, housing, health and education)
Science for national security: (nuclear and atomic energy received high priority but India refused to divert any portion of her atomic resources for the preparation of atomic bombs)
Science and Self-Reliance – Policy of Non-alignment and dependence on imports for food pushed towards enhancing national capacity to be self-sufficient in key sectors. Policy of import substitution.
Under Article 51A(h) developing scientific temper is one of the fundamental duties of a citizen of the country.
Under Article 51A(h) developing scientific temper is one of the fundamental duties of a citizen of the country.
Fundamental duties are of voluntary in nature and cannot be enforced by law or through courts as obligations of the citizens towards state or society.
The Directive Principles are more like wish lists indicated by framers of the Constitution who gave importance to economic freedom and social freedom of the citizens of the country.
Although the Principles are silent about science it can be inferred that the objectives of S&T policy cannot go against them and should facilitate realizing the objectives mentioned in the Principles.
For example since the Principles give importance to the betterment of conditions of women and children, it can be construed that S&T policies framed with this objective in mind are desirable.
Science popularization in India had a long history while organizations/movements at the interface of science and society were formed only in the late 1960s.
Science popularization in India had a long history while organizations/movements at the interface of science and society were formed only in the late 1960s.
Public opposition to the projects such as Silent Valley Project. was also articulated by them
Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) a pioneering peoples’ science movement got established in 1962
Activist groups and similar movements came together in 1985 and identified issues of common concern and interest - resulted in the formation of All India Peoples Science Network(AIPSN).
Later National Level Action Plan known as ‘Jan Vigyan Jatha’ was chalked out.
Around three themes: Science for the People, Science for the Nation and Science for Discovery. (Bharath Jan Vignyan Jatha 1986)
Around three themes: Science for the People, Science for the Nation and Science for Discovery. (Bharath Jan Vignyan Jatha 1986)
Linguistic, ethnic and religious diversity in India complicates understanding the Publics’
Understanding of Science is complicated further by wide disparities in literacy, access to information, and other variations in the human development indicators.
Radio and Television were under state control for many years and only in the last 15 years private sector has made rapid strides in this.
Agricultural programs were given exclusive slots in the government controlled media.
NISTADS with AIPSN undertook surveys on- Public Attitudes and Understanding of Science (PAUS), for study of interface between science, technology and society
NISTADS with AIPSN undertook surveys on- Public Attitudes and Understanding of Science (PAUS), for study of interface between science, technology and society
Focus on four areas of knowledge: Cosmology, Health and Hygiene, Geography and Climate and Agriculture.
Based on questionnaire interviews were conducted in Magaolpuri, Delhi (1991), Ardh-Kumbh, Allahabad (1995), and Nepal (1996).
The results of these surveys have not been consolidated and presented in a single publication.
The Indian National Science Academy (INSA) commissioned a study to National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) to produce India Science Report (2003-2004) for understanding public attitude towards science through a primary survey.
The Indian National Science Academy (INSA) commissioned a study to National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) to produce India Science Report (2003-2004) for understanding public attitude towards science through a primary survey.
A questionnaire based survey was done. The sample size was very limited and there has been no subsequent studies based on this questionnaire.
This survey is an interesting attempt to map perception on science and technology. But it had not been taken up further nor had been repeated in the later years. So it is difficult to extrapolate its findings, nor correlate this with any other study.
TV constitutes the leading source of information, followed by radio and television enjoys the credibility and confidence of about 75% of the participants, and the illiterate have the least confidence in this medium.
TV constitutes the leading source of information, followed by radio and television enjoys the credibility and confidence of about 75% of the participants, and the illiterate have the least confidence in this medium.
Indians perceive science and technology of great utility and 77% of the participants felt that S&T made lives easier and healthier but positive perception towards mechanization is low. But more than 60% consider that new technology makes work more interesting.
Hence it can be inferred that public resistance to science and technology would not be high unless the public had a negative perception about that technology.
A survey of Indian scientists (i.e.1100 PhD holders) was conducted in 2007-2008 on Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists, by Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture, Trinity College, U.S.A.
A survey of Indian scientists (i.e.1100 PhD holders) was conducted in 2007-2008 on Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists, by Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture, Trinity College, U.S.A.
The participants were from 130 institutions including IITs at Kanpur, Khargpur, Madras and Bombay and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Findings:
In their view scientists were well respected in India and they thought that scientific literacy in India was low.
64% of the participants stated that they would refuse to work on development of biological weapons, while 54% took the same stand on nuclear weapons.
Those who opposed genetic engineering and stem cell research were less than 10%.
Most of them (59%) considered themselves to be secular, 50% thought that homeopathy was efficacious.
In the absence of studies on perceptions of scientists this study is a welcome addition to the literature.
But this study’s approach is limited and many of the questions are directed towards their perceptions on science and religion and their self-perceptions on science and religion.
But this study’s approach is limited and many of the questions are directed towards their perceptions on science and religion and their self-perceptions on science and religion.
Hence this does not tell us much about their views on policy, public understanding of science.
The full results have not been made public and this makes its utility limited to what one can understand from the summary.
GM foods have not been approved in India, hence there has not been any study on the consumer acceptance of GM foods.
GM foods have not been approved in India, hence there has not been any study on the consumer acceptance of GM foods.
An experimental study done by Sangeetha Bansal et.al.(2012) on Economic Consequences of Labeling Genetically Modified Foods In India, showed, that while consumers are willing to pay a premium of 13% for non-GM foods only 50% were averse to GM foods.
Problems: In the absence of surveys and studies on public perception and understanding of science in India it is difficult to understand the values that shape publics response to science and technology.
Way forward: Doing such studies in a country with so many diversities is a daunting task, the time has come to take initiatives in this. India is planning to increase its spending on S&T significantly in the coming years, the need for surveys and studies on public understanding of science is obvious.
The economic development policies adopted in India had a major bearing on S&T strategy and on the strategies for agricultural and industrial sub-sectors.
The economic development policies adopted in India had a major bearing on S&T strategy and on the strategies for agricultural and industrial sub-sectors.
The historic Science Policy Resolution of 1958 embodied trust in science for the crucial role of an instrument for social and economic change
The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) took initiative to link-up social and national priorities with various S&T initiatives. Under the Sixth Five Year Plan a Cabinet Committee on Science and Technology (CCST) was constituted on 3rd March 1981 under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister to provide policy guidance in all matters relating to S&T.
A Science Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SACC) was re-constituted in March, 1981; Member (Science) in the Planning Commission is Chairman of SACC, to ensure appropriate linkages with the Planning Commission.
SACC recommended for a National Biotechnology Board (NBTB), which was established in 1982 as an inter-ministerial coordinating agency, to accelerate the pace of development in the frontier and emerging areas of biotechnology. This area was seen as of great relevance for agriculture, medicine and industry.
Under Science and Society Programme specific schemes were initiated with a view to benefit young scientists.
Under Science and Society Programme specific schemes were initiated with a view to benefit young scientists.
Gender specific programmes, Science and Technology Application for Weaker Sections (STAWS) and Technology Transfer for Tribal Development (TTTD) were also initiated with projects for reducing their drudgery of work in the rural areas. In this respect the Science and Technology Application for Rural Development (STARD) is a major scheme.
The Science and Society Programme also identified role for voluntary agencies in the field of S&T for generating and demonstrating technologies to increase productivity in the professions of weaker sections of the society, for example in pottery, tanning and agriculture related activities.
Planning Commission Seminar on New Technologies held in 1986 helped in evolving a new mechanism called Science and Technology Advisory Committee (STAC), which placed DST in a nodal role for promoting S&T through various line Ministries.
The STAC mechanism covers 24 socio-economic ministries.
In 2003, a Inter-Sectoral Science and Technology Advisory Committee (IS-STAC) was set up to provide a forum for the Member Secretaries of STACs, other scientists and technologists to share the expertise and experience and provide additional tools in decision making processes vis-à-vis socio-economic development
DST formed a new consolidated programme ‘Science for Equity, Empowerment and Development (SEED)’ for providing technology solutions for challenges in rural and urban areas for the disadvantaged sections of the society.
DST formed a new consolidated programme ‘Science for Equity, Empowerment and Development (SEED)’ for providing technology solutions for challenges in rural and urban areas for the disadvantaged sections of the society.
SEED emphasises on linking advance national laboratories with local S&T labs for encouraging interaction and initiatives for solving local challenges.
As a part of SEED programme, grant in aid projects are given to the grass root organisations particularly the ones working for improving quality of life of artisans, landless labour, women and other disadvantaged sections particularly in rural areas. In this, their skills are upgraded and they are linked with advanced laboratories on site solutions.
In the Eleventh Five year plan (2007-12) there was great emphasis on faster and more inclusive growth.
The Twelfth Plan (2012-17) also emphasises on faster, sustainable and more inclusive growth. It aims to generate resources for financing social sector programmes aimed at reducing poverty and enabling inclusiveness.
The government launched a special Scheme titled “Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research” (INSPIRE) as an effort to attract students to pursue S&T .
As a part of INSPIRE, one million young students would be supported across various states and they would be encouraged for spending time with Science icons at Summer Camps
Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC)
Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC)
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) issued a “Policy Statement on Ethical issues involving humans in biomedical research” in 1980 which suggested all institutions involved in clinical research should set up an institutional ethics committee and elaborated on the structure and function of these committees.
The Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) under the Drugs and Cosmetic Act 1964 issued the GCP guidelines for establishment of institutional ethics committees in 2001.
Hence, several institutions came up with institutional ethics committees for clinical trials. There is a proposal now for mandatory registration of institutional ethics committees.
Central Ethics Committee on Human Research (CECHR)
ICMR is leading India’s research programme through its Central Ethics Committee on Human Research (CECHR), which was established in 1996.
There is a proposed bill before the Indian Parliament for establishing Biomedical Research Authority (BRA) for providing overarching framework in the area of biomedical research. This is part of the Biomedical Research on Human Subjects (Promotion and Regulation) Bill, 2006.
The proposed bill would imply renaming of CECHR as the National Ethics Committee (NEC) with the
The ICMR had initially evolved and implemented ‘Ethical Guidelines on Research Involving Human Subjects’ in 1980, which was revised in 2000 and later in 2006, which is eventually taking the form of the bill to be placed before the Parliament.
The ICMR had initially evolved and implemented ‘Ethical Guidelines on Research Involving Human Subjects’ in 1980, which was revised in 2000 and later in 2006, which is eventually taking the form of the bill to be placed before the Parliament.
The amendments in the guidelines tried to respond to the fast changing technological context and evolving business partnerships and ethical concerns in this area.
National Bioethics Committee
The Department of Biotechnology of Government of India established a National Bioethics Committee (NBC) in 1999.
The Committee in 2003 recommended that no reproductive cloning shall be permitted, however, in view of the potential utility of therapeutic cloning the same can be approved on the merit of each case.
Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA)
Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA)
CPCSEA was established with the Ministry of Environment and Forest for regulating experiments on animals, under Prevention of Cruelty to Animals act of 1960.
The Breeding and Experiments on Animals (Control and Supervision) rules were notified in 1998, with amendments in 2001 and then in 2005.
The CPCSEA also requires registration of IAEC for carrying out experiments on small animals.
There are 1600 registered IAECs in India.
Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA)
Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA)
Under the Breeding and Experiments on Animals rules, the concerned institution is required to constitute Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC) and get it registered with CPCSEA, get their animal house inspected and also set their specific projects for research cleared by IAEC and CPCSEA for large animals etc.
The CPCSEA also requires registration of IAEC for carrying out experiments on small animals.
There are 1600 registered IAECs in India.
It works with the mandate to ensure that person duly qualified in animal science under his/her responsibility should be performing the experiment.
The experiments on larger animals are avoided when it is possible to achieve the same results by experiments upon small laboratory animals like guinea-'pigs, rabbits, mice, rats etc.
National Apex Committee for Stem Cell Research and Therapy
The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) evolved the Stem Cell Research and Therapy guidelines in 2007.
The SCRT guidelines defined ethical principles for derivation, propagation, differentiation, characterization, banking and for use of human stem cell for research and therapy.
The guidelines proposed to establish a National Apex Committee for Stem Cell Research and Therapy (NAC-SCRT) for review and monitoring various research initiatives.
We have taken a broader approach towards the idea of ethics and have also included programmes focused at access, inclusion and equity (AIE).
We have taken a broader approach towards the idea of ethics and have also included programmes focused at access, inclusion and equity (AIE).
Idea of inclusion for instance, is a multi-dimensional concept so are the others viz. access and equity.
Depending upon data availability and selection of S&T indicators a better understanding of socio-economic impact of S&T policies may be undertaken as a part of the GEST project.
S&T indicators relate to S&T manpower, R&D expenditure, patents, publications, which are generally used for international comparisons among different countries.
Discussion with the respective ministries/departments on the need for undertaking studies of public understanding of science and understanding/perception about new technologies will also be helpful.
Discussion with the respective ministries/departments on the need for undertaking studies of public understanding of science and understanding/perception about new technologies will also be helpful.
Studies on regulation of nanotechnology in India, ethical issues raised by it and the perception of scientists on Nanotechnology in India can be conducted.
The current projects’ outcomes in terms of products and services can be tentatively assessed in terms of their implications for access, equity and inclusion.
The Indian experience with ethics committees and guidelines can be studied in detail.
