401 religious encyclopedia nationalism

RAYMOND, MARTINI: Spanish Dominican and rabbinical scholar of the thirteenth century. He was a native of Catalonia, and was in 1250 one of eight monks appointed to make a study of oriental languages with the purpose of carrying on a mission to Jews and Moors. In 1264 he was one of the com­pany appointed by the king of Aragon to examine Jewish manuscripts in order to strike out from them any matter assailing Christianity. He worked in Spain as a missionary, and also for a short time in Tunis. A document bearing his signature and dated July, 1284, shows that he was at that time still living.

Raymond's refutation of the Koran is lost. There is at Bologna a manuscript of his Capistrum Ju­dworum, aimed at the errors of the Jews; and at Tortosa a manuscript containing, Explanatio simboli apostolorum ad institutionem fidelium has a marginal note that it was edited by " a fratre Ro Martini de ordine predicatorum." The great work with which Raymond's name is associated is his Pugio f dei, on which he was still at work in 1278. This work was used by Hieronymus de Sancta Fide in his Hebrao­mastix and elsewhere, was plagiarized by Petrus Galatinus, and was one of the credited sources of Victor Porchet's Victoria adversus impim Ebreos (Paris, 1520). About 1620 Bishop Bosquet dis­covered in the Collegium Fuxense a manuscript of the Pugio, and from this and three other manuscripts Joseph de Voisin edited the work with numerous learned annotations (Paris, 1651; edited again with introduction by J. B. Carpzov, Leipsic, 1687). The first part treats of God and divine omniscience, creation, immortality, and resurrection from the dead; the second and third parts are devoted to refutation of the Jews. The second and third parts are still of value for missions, and also for science since there are numerous correctly cited quotations from the Talmud, Midrashic works, and other early Jewish literature. Among these cited works is the Bereshith Rabba major or magna, a work in part de­rived from the Yesodh of Moses ha Darshan. In his use of this work the only charge that can be

Raymond THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG 408

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brought against Raymond is that he disconnected

sentences from their context and assembled them

in accordance with his subjective interpretation and

his purpose in writing.

The question, who is meant by the " Rachmon "

often adduced by Raymond, is not definitely an­

swered, some scholars considering that it is a He­

braizing of his own name, and not a character intro­

duced as speaking in the Talmud and Midrash.

(H. L. STRAC%.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Touron, Hid. des hommes illuseres de

d'ordre de St. Dominique, i. 489 504, Paris, 1743; Ambrose

of Altramum, BZliotheca Dominicana, ed. Rocaberti, pp.

58, 449 456, Rome, 1677; J. C. Wolf, Bsbliotheca Hebraa,

i. 1016 18, iii. 989 991, iv. 988, Hamburg, 1715 33;

J. Qu6tif and J. Echard, Scriptorm ordinis prmdicatorum,

i. 396 398, Paris, 1719; and literature named in J. G.

Waleh, Bsbliotheca theolopica aelecta, i. 609, Jens, 1757.

The charge that Raymond falsified his citations from Jew­

ish writings was renewed by S. M. SchillerSsinessy in

Journal of Philology, xvi (1887), 131 152; refutation of

the charge is offered by L. Zunz, Die pottesdienstlichen Vor

tr4ge der Juded, pp. 287 293, Berlin, 1832; E. B. Pussy,

Fifty Third Chapter of Isaiah, vol. ii., Oxford, 1877; A.

Neubauer, Book of Tobit, pp. vii. ix., xx. xxv., ib. 1878;

A. Epstein, in Mapazin fur die Wissenachaft des Juden­

thums, 1888, pp. 65 99, cf. I. Levi, in Revue des Etudes

juives, xvii (1888), 313 317.

RAYMOND, MINER: Methodist Episcopal; b.

at New York Aug. 29, 1811; d. at Evanston, Ill.,

Nov. 25, 1897. He was educated at the Wesleyan

Academy, Wilbraham, Mass.; became teacher in

the same, 1834, and was principal, 1848 $4; was

pastor in Massachusetts after 1841; and professor of

systematic theology in Garrett Biblical Institute,

Evanston, Ill., from 1864. He published Systematic

Theology (3 vols., Cincinnati, 1877).

RAYMOND, SAINT, OF PENNAFORTE: B. at

Barcelona toward the close of the twelfth century;

d. Jan. 6, 1275. He studied in his native city and at

Bologna; was made canon in the cathedral of Bar­

celona; entered the Dominican order in 1222; was

made confessor to Gregory IX. in 1230, and general

of his order in 1238; but resigned in 1240 in order to

devote himself to the conversion of the heretics and

unbelievers in Spain. He was canonized in 1601,

and his day is Jan 23. He wrote a Compilatio nova

derretalium Gregorii IX. (Strasburg, 1470?); Du_

bitalia cum responsionibus tut qumdam capita missa ad

pontificem (published by J. F. von Schulte, Vienna,

1868); and a Summa de pcenitentia et matrimonio

(Rome, 1603).

BIBLIoaaAPHy: G. Phillips, Birchenrecht, iv. 252 303, 7

vOls., Regensburg, 1845 72; J. F. von Schulte, Oeschichte

der Quellen and Literatur des canonischen Rwhte, ii. 408­

413, Stuttgart, 1877; $L, x. 755 757.

RAYMUNDUS LULLUS. See LuLLY, RAyMoND.

RAYNALDUS, ODERICUS. See RINALDI, ODo­

RICO.

READER. See LECTOR.

REALISM. See ScaoLASTIcisM.

REAL PRESENCE. See LORD'S SUPPER; TRAN­

SUBSTANTIATION.

REBEKAH BIBLE. See BIBLE VRRstoNS, B,

IV., § 9.

RECHABITES, rec'a baits: A clan of the Ken­ites, noted for adherence to the commands of one of their early elders. The fundamental passage for knowledge of the Rechabites is Jer. xxxv. 1 aqq. According to this, during the Siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar, Jeremiah invited into the Temple the Rechabites who had fled to Jerusalem before the Babylonian armies, and set wine before them. They refused to drink it in spite of his urging, giv­ing as their reason the prohibition against wine by Jonadab, son of Rechab, their ancestor. The fidelity with which the Rechabites observed these commands, served Jeremiah as a text for a denunciation of faithless Judah, which did not keep the com­mands of its God with equal fidelity. Besides this passage, the ancestor, if not the clan, is described in II Kings x. 15 16 as being in earnest accord with the reforming purposes of Jehu. Finally the Rech­abites are noted in I Chron. ii. 55 among the " fam­ilies of the scribes who dwelt at Jabez " as "" the Kenites that came of Hamath the father of the house of Rechab." This is after the return from the Babylonian captivity.

There is little doubt that the Rechabites were nomads who clung to their primitive habits when Israel had advanced to the agricultural stage. They worshiped Yahweh, but it was the Yahweh whom Israel had worshiped in the desert. It is, there­fore, intelligible that, in the days of Elisha and Elijah, when the worship of Baal threatened to drive out that of Yahweh, a religious community could be formed under the leadership of a Jonadab ben Rechab, which rejected everything savoring of Canaanite civilization. The name Rechab was, naturally, only a tribal appellation. The esteem enjoyed by the community is proved by the fact that Jehu believed he could conciliate the people after his bloody deeds by having Jonadab with him on his chariot. The Rechabites who sought refuge in Jerusalem, in Jeremiah's time, seem to have had a semi spiritual position, and, in consequence of the events of the time, were forced to give up their nomadic life. They probably shared the captivity of the inhabitants, and after their return seem to have abandoned their exceptional position and pos­sibly became a race of scribes. (R. KITTEL.)

BIBLIoaBAPBY: Commentaries on Jeremiah, e.g., W. H. Bennett, pp. xxi. Iii., 44 sqq, London, 1895; H. Witsius, Miscellanea sacra, ii. 223 237, Amsterdam, 1700; A. Cal­met, Commentaire littoral, JIr~mie, pp. xliii. liii., Paris, 1731; H. Schultz, O. T. Theology, 2 vols., London, 1892; K. Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 19 eqq., New York, 1899; R. Smend, Alttestamentliehe Reliqionsge­schichte, pp. 93 sqq., Tabingen, 1899; R. Kittel, Oeschichte des Volkes Israel, ii. 351 352, 385 386, Leipsic, 1909; Smith, Rd. of Sem., 2d ed., 484 sqq.; Vigouroux, Die. tionnaire, fuse. xxxiv. 1001 1003; DB, iv. 203 204; EB, iv. 4019 21; JE, x.341 342.
RECLUSE (Lat. reclusue, incluslm): Specifically a particular kind of solitary who lives a life of se­clusion in a cell (clausa, recluserium) in the belief that God is served by so doing. The practise be­came common in the West, although reports from the East concerning a temporary or permanent im­murement of both male and female hermits are not lacking. Gregory of Tours (d. 593 or 594) is the first in the West to mention a number of

409 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Rs oad

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recluses of both sexes, and this incloistered life

appears to have been widely extended in Gaul in

the sixth century. Protasius lived

The Early thus at Combronde in Auvergne (Vita;

Recluses. pdtrum, v.), Junianus (d. 530) at

Limoges (Gloria confeworum, ciii.),

the widow Monegundis at Tours (Vita patrum,

xix.), Leobardus (d. 583) at Marmoutier near

Tours, Hospitius at Vienne (Hilt. Francorum,

vi. 6), and others. Gregory further tells of the

incloistration of a twelve year old lad, Anatolius,

near Bordeaux (Hilt. Francorum, viii. 34). He

also describes (Hilt. Francorum, vi. 29) the solemn

act of immuring, in the cloister of the Holy

Cross at Poitiers, during the time of St. Rade­

gonde (d. 587). The cell being duly prepared, the

Abbess Radegonde, amid the chanting of psalms,

conducted the new recluse to her cell, attended by

the rest of the nuns bearing lighted tapers. Here

the incloistered one took leave of the nuns with a

kiss, and then followed the sealing of the door. The

Western Church made early provision for an eccle­

siastical regulation and subjection of the inclois­

tered religious under the church authorities. The

synods of Vannes, 465 (canon vii.), Agde, 506

(canon xxxviii.), Toledo, 648 (canon v.), and Frank­

fort, 794 (canon xii.) decreed that permission to lead

the recluse life should be given only to those who

had been regularly brought up and well approved

in the cloister.

In spite of all efforts on the part of the Church to

regulate the system, it retained a certain freedom

and diversity. The recluses only in part affiliated

with Benedictine or other cloisters; a

Classes of system of lay recluses existed, inde­

Recluses. pendent of the orders, who in some

cases annexed their cells to cloisters or

to cathedral churches. Finally, there was still an­

other class of recluses, and these must have been

the least acceptable to the Church, as they lived

isolated as forest and wilderness hermits, and bound

themselves to no rule. The Church tolerated them,

chiefly because the neople venerated them for their

supposed gifts of miracles and healing; but con­

troversies concerning them were not lacking. There

were recluses associated with the Benedictine clois­

ter of St. Gall. In the ninth and tenth centuries

there were also recluses in connection with other Ben­

edictine cloisters, as at Fulda, Messobrunn, GStt­

weig, St. Emmeram, Nieder Alteich, and elsewhere.

Recluses were also found in the monasteries of priors

obedient to the Augustinian rule, and in cloisters

of tie Cistercians and the Premonstrants. The most

renowned unattached recluses who lived in sylvan

solitude are St. Liutbirga, who dwelt in a cave of

the so called Rosstrappe, in the nether Bodethal,

from about 830 to 860 (Vita in B. Pez, Thesaurus

anecdotorum, ii. 146 178, 6 vols., Augsburg, 1721­

1723); and St. Sisu of Drubeck id Westphalia, who

inhabited her hermitage for sixty four years (Thiet­

mar, Chronicon, ix. 8).

Efforts to regulate the life of the solitary monks

and nuns connected with cloisters were not lack­

ing. The oldest rule was drawn up by a Frankish

cloistral ecclesiastic Grimilach, probably before the

close of the ninth century (L. Holstenius, Codex

regularum, ed. 11 I. Brockie, i. 291 344, Augsburg,

1759). It is based on the Benedictine rule, and that

of Aachen dating from 817. Only

Rules. monks who have passed through the

cloister or secular ecclesiastics approved

by strict tests, and only by permission of the bishop

or abbot, are allowed to become recluses. Amid the

pealing of bells, the prospective solitary enters the

cell prepared for him, and the bishop seals it with

his ring. The privilege of receiving daily commu­

nion is also allowed to the lay recluse. With the

" contemplative life," which conjointly with the ob­

servance of the customary canonical hqurs obliges

him to ceaseless inward prayer, he is to combine

a life of action, to earn his food by manual labor,

and to distribute, of his surplus, alms to the poor.

This rule, again, forbids exaggerated fasting and

even allows wine. Lastly, the recluse may have as

many as three disciples to serve him, while the aged

and infirm recluses are allowed an attendant, who

also sees to their baths. There is a very compen­

dious rule for solitaries from the Augustinian juris­

diction of Baumburg, which appears to belong to

the eleventh century, and has regard chiefly to the

needs of lay recluses (M. Rader, Bavaria sancta, iii.

114 sqq., Munich, 1624; B. Haeften, Disquisi­

tiones monasticce, p. 83, Antwerp, 1644). It gives

precise directions with reference to the nature and

outfit of the cell, which is to be constructed of

stone, twelve feet square, with three windows, one

opening into the choir of the church and serving for

the reception of the communion, a second admitting

food and drink, and the third, provided with glass

or horn, letting in the light. Besides these rules for

male recluses, there are two for women. About the

middle of the twelfth century, Ethelred (d. 1166),

Cistercian abbot of Revesby in the diocese of York,

upon the request of his sister, a recluse, wrote a

rule entitled Aelredi regula live institutio inclusarum

(Holstenius Brockie, ut sup., i. 418 440). Above

all he assails the symptoms of moral decline and of

grievous abuses in the contemporary recluse life of

England. He desires complete seclusion from the

outer world, and energetically forbids the distribu­

tion of alms to the poor, and the reception of guests.

His ideal is a purely contemplative life. Yet even

in this respect his " Institution," like Benedictine

monasticism at large, bears an aristocratic stamp.

The recluse nun has in her service an old woman and

a young maid, the latter attending to menial tasks.

Half a century earlier is the Ancren Riwle (" An­

chorite Rule "), composed probably by Bishop Rich­

ard Poor (d. 1237), of Salisbury (B. ten Brink, Ge­

schichte der eWlischen Litteratur, i. 251 257, Berlin,

1877), for three noble dames living as recluse nuns

at Tarrant in Dorsetshire.

In the later Middle Ages, the solitaries were driven out by the mendicant orders and the Beguine com­munities (see BEGHARDs, BEGUINES).

Decline and Sporadically, however, they persisted

Disappear  even down to the Reformation period.

ance. Leo X. conceded the same favors to

four recluses of St. Andrew's Chapel

in St. Peter's Church that he had accorded the

Clares (Wadding, Annates minorm, ad. 1515 n. 4).

In the seventeenth century they disappeared

Recollect

Red Sea THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG 410

altogether, one of the latest being Johanna of Cambry, who had herself immured as a recluse at St. Andrew's Church, Lille, in 1625, and died there in 1639 (Helyot, Ordres monastiques, iv. 338

sqq.).

In the Evangelical church, intense ascetic zeal

urged certain Dutch Reformed extremists to re­

store the medieval recluse life, the best known being

the solitary Johann Gennuvit of Venningen on the

Ruhr (d. 1699), who tenanted a lonely cabin (ZSck­

ler, p. 576). G. GRtYTZmACHER.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature of the subject is largely bound up with that on Monasticism; special treatment may be found in: 1. Hauber, Leben and Wirken der Einpe­achto8senen, Schaffhausen, 1844; L. A. A. Pavy, Les Re­cluserim, Lyons, 1875; C. Kingsley, The Hermits, London, 1885; M. C. Guigue, Recherchm sur les recluseries de Lyon, Lyons, 1887; A. Basedow, Die Inklusen in Deutschland . im 12. and 13. Jahrhundert, Heidelberg, 1895; Lina Eckenstein, Woman under Monasticism, Cambridge, 1896; Mrs. Anna Jameson, Legends of the Monastic Orders, Bos­ton, 1896; O. Zockler, Askese and Monchtum, pp. 463 eqq., Frankfort, 1897; A. W. Wiahart, Monks and Monas­teries, consult the Index under " Hermits," Trenton, 1902; HL, vi. 631 sqq.

RECOLLECT: The designation (from recolligere, " to gather again ") applied to certain congrega­tions inside different monastic orders, because their members returned to the primitive strict rule of life. So in. the latter part of the sixteenth century, there were recollects of the Augustinians, and among the Franciscans there were recollpets of both sexes.

(J. J. HERZOGt.)

RECONCILIATION. See ATONEMENT.

RECUSANT: The term used in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches to denominate those who refuse (Lat. recusare, " to refuse ") to attend church and worship after the manner of those communions.

RED CROSS SOCIETY: Henry Dunant, a na­

tive of Switzerland, having witnessed the great and

unnecessary suffering of the wounded after the battle

of Solferino, in 1859, and being inspired

The Treaty by the work of Miss Florence Night­

of Geneva. ingale (q.v.) and other women, during

the Crimean War, wrote a pamphlet

entitled Un Souvenir de Solferino (3d ed., Geneva,

1862). This work and his untiring energies aroused

the interest of many of the sovereigns of Europe.

In 1864, by invitation of the Swiss government, a

convention of the representatives of several powers

was held in Geneva, at which was signed the first

treaty of Geneva, sometimes called the Red Cross

treaty. This treaty was revised by a second con­

vention in 1906, and by the Hague convention its

provisions have been extended to naval warfare. It

has been ratified by forty countries, representing

all the civilized nations of the world (by the United

States of America in Mar., 1882). This instrument

provided that " officers, soldiers, and other persons

officially attached to armies, who are sick or wounded

shall be respected and cared for without distinctions

of nationality, by the belligerent in whose power

they are." Hospital formations, their personnel

and supplies are neutralized and protected by the

treaty, which also recognizes and includes under its

provisions the volunteer aid societies of the Red

Cross. Out of compliment to Switzerland, the Swiss flag, reversed in color (red cross on a white field), was selected as the universal emblem and distinctive sign for the protection provided by the treaty. The treaty provides further that all the signatory powers shall obtain, as far as possible, legislation prevent­ing the use by private persons or by societies, other than those upon which this convention con­fers the right thereto, of the emblem or name of the Red Cross or Geneva Cross, particularly for com= mercial purposes (trade marks).

Under the Treaty of Geneva have grown up the great national Red Cross societies of the world.

Each society is organized independ­Red Cross ently and according to the customs

Societies. and laws of its respective country. It

must be " duly recognized and author­ized " by its respective government. After a society is organized and has secured the necessary recogni­tion by its respective government, its credentials are forwarded to the international committee at Geneva, which passes upon them. If these are found satis­factory the international committee informs the foreign office of the Swiss government, which in its turn notifies the foreign offices of all the other sig­natory powers of the official standing of the society. In the charter granted by congress to the American Red Cross in 1905, the reasons for the formation of an official volunteer society as stated in the act are that " The International Conference of Geneva rec­ommends that there exist in every country a com­mittee whose mission consists in cooperating in times of war with the hospital service of armies by all means in its powers," and that a " permanent organization is an agency needed in every nation to carry out the purposes of said treaty," and, further­more, that " the importance of the work demands a reincorporation under government supervision." The purposes of the society " are and shall be to furnish volunteer aid to the sick and wounded of armies in time of war in accordance with the spirit and conditions of the Treaty of Geneva," " to act in matters of voluntary relief and in accord with the military and naval authorities as a medium of com­munication between the people of the United States of America and their army and navy, and to act in such matters between similar national societies of other governments through the international com­mittee and the government and the people and the Army and the Navy of the United Stwtes of Amer­ica." In the majority of Red Cross societies the sphere of work has been broadened to include relief after national or international disasters. In the charter of the American Red Cross the additional duty is imposed upon the society " to continue and carry on a system of national and international re­lief in time of peace and apply the same in mitiga­ting the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same."

The first use of the emblem of the Red Cross in actual warfare was made by a corps of the Sanitary Commission in the last year of the Civil War in the United States of America. The volunteer societies of the Red Cross began their most active assistance

411 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Recollect

acs sea

in France and Germany during the war of 1870, and

since that time, in nearly all of the countries

which have signed the Treaty of

History and Geneva societies have been created.

Operations. The training of nurses, the organization

of an active personnel that may be

ready for immediate mobilization, the collecting in

some countries of hospital materials, including port­

able barracks, hospital trains and ships, and the

formation of local committees or divisions for the

raising of funds and supplies, in case of war, have

been among the duties of the societies. Since their

organization the sufferings of the sick and wounded

have been greatly decreased. This was noticeably

so during the Russo Japanese War, when the Red

Cross societies of the respective countries rendered

invaluable assistance, provided hospital ships, hos­

pital trains, field hospitals, an immense amount of

other supplies, and a large trained personnel for the

care of the sick and wounded. The Japanese Red

Cross has a membership of 1,522,000, which pro­

vides an annual income of over a million dollars.

In funds this society has over seven millions of dol­

lars and possesses property and supplies valued at a

million or more. The European societies have many

hundreds of thousands of members, in a number of

countries the funds of the Red Cross amount to from

one to five millions of dollars, and several organiza­

tions possess also large warehouses of supplies. The

first organization of the Red Cross in the United

States occurred in 1881, a few months before the

treaty was signed by this country. Its first presi­

dent, Miss Clara Barton, remained at the head of

the society until 1904, when she resigned. At that

time it numbered about 300 members. During the

war between the United States and Spain the society

of which Miss Barton was president was mainly

occupied in reconcentrado relief. In New York,

California, and other parts of the United States in­

dependent and temporary Red Cross organizations

grew up for the relief of the sick and wounded.

These independent organizations died out after the

war was over. In 1905 the American Red Cross

was reincorporated by act of congress. Its central

committee of eighteen members (the governing

body) consists of six persons appointed by the

president of the United States, including the chair­

man and representatives of the State, Treasury,

War, Justice, and Navy Departments, of six elected

by the incorporators, and six by the delegates from

its subsidiary organizations. The law requires all

accounts to be audited by the War Department

and that an annual report of its transactions be

made to congress. Its subsidiary organizations con­

sist of state boards, of each of which the governor

is ex officio president, a limited number of repre­

sentative citizens of the state constituting the other

members. The duties of these boards lie mainly in

the raising of funds in case of local disaster within

the state, or of serious national and international

disasters; local chapters consist of local bodies of

members in counties, cities, towns, or villages, for the

purpose of aiding the relief work required in time of

war or disaster; there are also specialized agencies,

such as duly elected charity organizations, federa­

tions of trained nurses, relief columns, and the like,

for active relief work. The work of national head­

quarters is segregated under three boards, War, Nar

tional, and International Relief. The chairman and

vice chairman of each board are members of the

central committee. The duties assigned to these

boards is the study, planning, organization, super­

vision, and control of such relief work as falls under

their respective jurisdiction. From the time of its

reorganization in Feb., 1905, until Jan. 1, 1910, the

American Red Cross has assisted in relief work after

twenty five disasters, receiving and expending for

this relief over five million dollars, besides large

quantities of supplies. Not included in this amount

is $400,000 raised by the sale of the Red Cross

Christmas stamps to aid in the campaign against

the pestilence of tuberculosis. Since the reorgan­

ization of the American National Red Cross in 1905,

William Howard Taft has been the president, and

the national treasurer has been the representative

of the United States Treasury on the central com­

mittee, and its counselor has been the representa­

tive of the Department of Justice upon this com­

mittee. M. T. BOARDMANN.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Barton, Story of the Red Cross, New York, 1904; E. R. F. MeCaul, Under the Care of the Jap­anese War Office, new ed., ib. 1905.

RED SEA, THE (Hebr. Yam suph, "Sea of Reeds "; Gk. Eruthra thalassa, " Red Sea "; Egyp­tian, kem ver, " Black water ") : The sea located in the Bible east of Egypt by the fact that in the exodus the Hebrews crossed it on the way to Horeb and Kadesh. The name is given in the Old Testa­ment both to the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Akaba (Ex. xxiii. 31; Num. xxi. 4; Deut. ii. 1; I Kings ix. 26). It is still debated whether the Hebrew name is Semitic or a loan word (from the Egyptian twfi). In connection with the Exodus it is necessary to remember that in the time of the Pharaohs the western arm of this sea extended as far as Wadi Tumilat, i.e., to about the middle of the Isthmus of Suez, and that to the northern part of this arm the Egyptian name kemrver was given. The Egyptians called the Red Sea below Suez " the Sea of Sailing Around." The meaning " sea of reeds " has been called in question on grounds of natural history, yet is settled by Ex. ii. 3, 5; Isa. xix. 6. Beds of reeds are still to be found in the region, though not common on the Red Sea, and the reed grows in fresh water. In attempting to account for the Greek Roman name " Red Sea," in Jonah ii. 5, the meaning " sea grass " has been proposed for the Hebrew suph, and it is conjectured that the name is derived from the fact that this reddish sea growth abounds in those waters. But that name could not on this ground be applied especially to this body of water since the growth is common to all seas, and the poem in Jonah is not particularly pertinent to the argument. No very noticeable red phenomenon is observable in the Red Sea, either of animal life, vegetation, cliffs, or coral (so C. B. Klunzinger, Bilder aus Oberagypten, p. 263, Stutt­gart, 1877). Ebers has suggested that the name may have come from Erythrcean (" red skinned ") inhabitants of the region. Herodotus means by " Red Sea " the Indian Ocean, and he generally

Red Sea

Redemption

THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG

412

calls the Gulf of Suez the " Arabian Gulf," though he employs also the term " Red Sea." What now goes by that name, the waters from the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, northward to the peninsula of Sinai, has existed since the chalk age, though its area is growing less through the elevation of the land about its shores.

Upon the events related is Ex. xiii. xv., dealing with the passage of the sea by the Hebrews who had sojourned in Egypt, some light has been thrown by the excavations carried on under the Egypt Exploration Fund (q.v.), especially the investiga­tions in the Wadi Tumilat under E. Naville in 1883. It has been shown that a " treasure city " (Ex. i. 11) existed there of which the name was probably Pithom (" sanctuary of the god Tum "). A stone was found by Naville bearing the inscription Bro Contra, showing the location there of the Greek city Heroopolis, the Roman Ero Castra, which the Cop­tic version of Gen. xlvi. 28 29 brings into connec­tion with Goshen in the land of Rsmeses and with Pithom (of. Ex. i. 11). The Coptic translator seems to have known that Heroopoli$ was the site of the earlier Pithom. From Greek and Roman writers of the period 300 B.C. 150 A.D. it is known that the Red Sea reached as far as this place and was nav­igable. Geological evidence fully corroborates this testimony, .and the recession of the waters has taken place in the present geological era. The reports of canal building in this region by Necho II. and Darius refer doubtless to the dredging of an old channel. The stations of the Hebrews as given in the two narrations of J and P do not accord, as is shown by a parallel presentation.

Ex, xiii. 17 18, "not the way of the land of the Philistines, . . . but

.the way of the wilderness of the Red

J. P~

Gen. x1V. 10 and Ex. Gen. xlvii. 11, " land of viii. 22, " land of Rameaes "; Ex. xii. 13,

Goshen." " land of Egypt "; Ex.

ail. 37, " Ramesea to

Succoth."

Ex. xiii. 20, " Etham, in

the edge of the wilder­

ness "; Ex. xiv. 2, 9,

circuit to Pi hahiroth

between Migdol and

the sea, before Baal­

zephon.

Ex. xv. 22, 23, 27, " wit Ex. xvi. 1, " Elim."

derness of Shur,"

" Marsh," " Elim."
The data given by J is intelligible in the light of present knowledge. The " way of the land of the Philistines " is the old caravan route which passes by the southeast corner of the Mediterranean. The " way of the wilderness of the Red Sea "led through the Wadi Tumilat past Pithom to the region of the Bitter Lakes and the wilderness of Shur, which, according to Gen. acv. 18, was "before Egypt," i.e., on its eastern border. Since the Hebrews were hemmed in by the border fortresses, there was no alternative but to ford the sea at a shallow spot. It would appear that the combination of a strong east wind and an ebb tide, producing a complete drying up of the waters, was not as uncommon phe­nomenon. In the opportune happening of this phe 

nomenon Moses would see the favoring head of his

God, and he led his people across during the night.

The earlier construction of the passage led Moses

and the Hebrews southward toward Suez ; the dis­

covery of Naville has made this hypothesis unten­

able. The account of P is leas intelligible. For the

" land of Rameses " see Gos11rN. Succoth is equated

with the frequently recurring Egyptian term Thuku

or Thuket, the name of a district in the region of

Pithom. Etham may be the Hebrew rendering of

the Egyptian hetem, " fortress," several of which

guarded the eastern boundary of Egypt against the

nomads. Ex. xiv. 2 by the use of " turn ' creates

a puzzle as to the location of the camp. A Migdol is

known to have existed twelve Roman miles from

Pelusium, somewhere near Tell al Her, but to pass

this would lead the Israelites by " the way of the

Philistines," which was forbidden (J). Pihahiroth

is not yet definitely made out. Prevent knowledge

does not permit more exact following out of the

narrative of P. (H. CTuTHE.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Ehrenberg, in Abhandlunpen der Ber­liner Akademie. PhYnikali$che IClaase. 1832, 1, pp. 184 aqq. (on the corals): F. Fresnel, in JA, 8 ser., xi (1848). 274 aqq.; C. Ritter, Comparative Geography of Palestine, i. 58 80, 182 188, Ediaburgh, 1888; G. Ebexs. Durch Goaett sum Sinai, 91 aqq., 532 eqq., Leipsic, 1881; A. W. Thayer, The Hebrews and the Red Sea. Andover, 1883; W. M. MOller, Amen and Europe, Leipeio. 1893; E. C. A. Riehm, Handwbrterbuch den bibliachen Altertums, iii. 988 987. ib. 1894; DB, iv. 210; EB, iv. 4022 24. On the Exodus. E. Naville, The Store CifY of Psthom and the Route of the Exodus, London, 1885 (an epoch making Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund); H. Brugach, SteininachriJt and BibelworE, pp. 117 aqq., 228 eqq., Berlin. 1891; J. G. Duncan, The Exploration of Egypt and the O. T., London, 1908; R. Weill, Le Stjour den iara4litea au d8aert d Is Sinai dens la relation primitive. Paris. 1910.

REDEEMER, ORDER OF THE (Ordo S. Salva­toris or S. Retiemptoris): A popular designation of several Roman Catholic orders. It is incorrectly given to the Brigittinea (see BRIDGET, SAINT, of SWEDEN), and to the Ordo de redemptione capti­vorum,founded by St. Peter Nolasco (see NoLeaco). With more propriety it i's applied to the Redemptor­ilta (Societal sanctiasimi nostri Rsdemptoris) of Alfonso Maria da Liguori (q.v.), though its use here can easily lead to misunderstanding. The same is true of the name as designation for a knightly order (De sanctissimo sanguine S. Re­demptoris) founded by Vincent I. of Mantua in 1808; it was confirmed by Pope Paul V., but never attained to mach importance. The Greek Order of the Redeemer, founded by King Otto I. in 1833 to commemorate the liberation from the Turkish yoke, is a purely secular older of merit. Lastly, a priest of the diocese of Freiburg, J. B. Jordan by name (later called Father Francis of the Cross), founded at Rome in 1881 a Societal divini Salva­toris, devoted to the work of missions. In 1889 it was given the apostolic prefecture of Assam in the East Indies as its field of labor, and in 1895 it also undertook missionary work in South Africa.

(O. ZlSCBLERt.)

Btartoaaerms Heimbucher. Order oral Rongrepationen, fli. 313. 331 aqq.. 516, 518, b70 571; M. Gritaner, Ritter­und.Verdienatorden alter TfuTturataaten der Welt im fY. JahThundert, Leipaic, 1893; Currier, Religious Orders, pp. 180 aqq., 466 eq9~, 873 aqq.

Ued Sea

418 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Itedemption

REDEMPTION.

Fundamental Ideas (¢ 1). Cognate Ideas 0 2). Redemption in the Old Testament (¢ 3). In the New Testament (¢ 4). In the Early Church and the East (¢ b). In the West till the Reformation (§ t)). Reformation and Later Doctrine (§ 7). Requirements of the Doctrine (1 8).

The Christian religion, though not the exclusive possessor of the idea of redemption, has given to it a special definiteness and a dominant position. If the term be taken in its widest sense,

i. Funds  as deliverance from dangers and ills mental in general, scarcely any religion is Ideas. wholly without it. It assumes an im­portant position, however, only when the ills in question form part of a great system against which human power is helpless. This may be carried so far that every act of the religious life is contemplated in connection with the idea of re­demption, as is the case with Buddhism. The doc­trine assumes a higher form when it includes or principally considers deliverance from evil. The religion of Israel shows a progressive development from a mainly eudemonistic to a mainly ethical con­ception; and it is of the essence of Christianity to regard redemption as primarily a deliverance from sin, upon which freedom from other ills follows as a consequence. Where a decided ethical sighifi­cance is given to the term, two separate lines of thought are followed out, each connected with a separate conception of sin. On the one hand, sin is a condition which appears in the light of religion as a painful burden; on the other, it is a personal act of the will, which brings with it the conscious­ness of guilt. Inasmuch as to this is attached the torturing consciousness of separation from God, the desire for its removal becomes the dominant thought. The fundamental question of religion, then, is the possibility of reconciliation, while sin as a condition stands first of the ills from which man seeks deliver­ance. In the most developed form of an ethical redemptive religion the thought of reconcilia­tion is thus preeminent. Such a religion has the deepest conception of sin as an offense against the moral authority of God, and the highest personally ethical idea of salvation as a relation of peace resting upon the gracious disposi­tion of God. This being the conception which is characteristic q£ Christianity, it would be more fitting to consider Christianity a religion of recon­ciliation than of redemption, in which respect it rises far above Buddhism, which is a religion of redemption.

It will, therefore, be well to determine the rela­tion of the terms " redemption " and " reconcilia­tion " or " atonement " in Christian dogmatics. The actual use is somewhat lacking,in pre 

2. Cognate cision, largely on account of the way Ideas. in which they are used in the New Tes­tament, which employs katallagis, for the decisive change in the relation of man to God, through which efirine, °' peace," is substituted for echthra, " hostile " (Rom. v. 10, 11; II Cor. v. 18­20), and deliverance from impending judgment en­sues (Rom. v. 9). On the other hand, apolutrfia

sometimes refers to the atoning work of Christ as the ground of the forgiveness of sins (Rom. iii. 24; Eph. i. 7; Col. i. 14; Heb. ix. lb), and sometimes to the final deliverance from the pressure of condi­tions here (Rom. viii. 23; I Cor. i. 30; Eph. iv. 30). These passages lead to a threefold use of the word as denoting (1) the entire saving work of Christ, the deliverance from guilt, sin, and evil; (2) the precise method which renders the forgive­ness of sins possible, buying back at the price of the death of Christ; (3) the change worked in human destiny by the removal of guilt. In modern theol­ogy, despite numerous variations, the weight of usage is in favor of designating by atonement the removal of guilt (not merely of the subjective con­sciousness of guilt), and by redemption the break­ing of the power of sin and the removal of the mis­ery consequent upon its dominion. The former combines the ethical and religious standpoints, the latter the ethical and eudemonistic (see AToNE­M;rrr).

If the idea of redemption be traced through the Scriptures, the belief in Yahweh's redeeming power and purpose is met at the threshold of the national existence of Israel. This existence is 3. Redemp  established by the redemption of the tion in people from Egyptian slavery, which

the Old remains the memorial of their election Testament as the people of God, and the pledge of further deliverances to come. The Jewish idea of redemption is originally political; the object of redemption is the nation, and the foes from whom they are redeemed are national adversaries. In the same form the idea appears after the exile. The subject of Isa. xl. lxvi. is the redeeming acts of Yahweh, past and future, and all the prophets point to his demonstrated faithfulness as a ground for hope. But with the exile the hope took a new and more spiritual shape. The national misfortunes impressed the people deeply with the conditional nature of the covenant. Israel's guilt separates the people from its God, and only repentance can open the way to new salvation. If God restores his peo­ple, it is a sign that he forgives them and takes away their guilt. This forgiveness is based upon the free love of God; it is not gained by the sacri­fices of the law, but he regards the sacrifice of his servant, upon whom is laid the iniquity of all. Thus is reached, at the highest point of the Old Testa­ment doctrine of redemption, the idea of an atone­ment which is not conditioned upon legal sacrifices and not limited to minor transgressions. Political aspirations are not lacking even here; but the fun­damental idea is that of a moral change in the peo­ple (Isa. lviii. 6 14). Sin is now recognized as the root of evil, and victory is promised, not merely over national foes, but over man's hereditary enemy, the tempter. But a redemption with moral . con­ditions can no longer be confined to one race; Israel's light is to go out to the heathen. And with this broadening of the conception comes also its indi­vidualizing; the individual who trusts in God is to be redeemed by God's intervention from peril and oppression, and even acquires a hope of resurrection from death.

The form assumed in the New Testament by the

Redemption

Baden

idea of redemption is not the logical continuance of this process, but is the result of the revelation of

God in Christ. Though the redeemer 4. In does not correspond to the expecta 

the New tions of a mighty ruler of David's line,

Testament. the deeds of healing and help that he

performs, and the fatherly love of God that he attests, proclaim him the heaven sent savior. He himself regards his casting out of devils as a sign of the opening of a new period of salvation, of the coming of the kingdom of God. Finally he gives his life a ransom for many, making possible a re­mission of guilt by his voluntary bearing of its con­sequence. His appearances after his resurrection convince his disciples that he is still to be with them, as the head of his invisible kingdom, to the end of the world. His proclamation of a second coming, upon which are to follow the messianic judgment, the liberation of his people from all oppression, and a change in all the conditions of human life (Matt. xix. 28), does not alter the fact that redemption in its fullest sense is the work of his first coming. Ac­cordingly, in the apostolic preaching the main points are the death of Christ as the basis of the atonement, his resurrection as the ground of a new and spiritual life for his disciples, and his second coming, which shall remove the oppression of evil. In other words, the New Testament conception of redemption puts first the idea of relief from guilt, next that of deliverance from the power of sin, and last the removal of evil. Such a religious ethical redemption can of course be limited to no one na­tion, but begins to realize itself wherever faith in the redeemer is present and an entrance into his world wide kingdom is gained.

In Christian theology the doctrine of redemption has a different history from that of the atonement. While in the latter is concentrated the struggle to balance the religious and the ethical elements in the idea of salvation, the certainty of redemption is always a fixed background of the Christian con­sciousness; and the historical development is chiefly interesting for the way in which the recognition of the personal ethical nature of salvation, sharply emphasized by Paul but early obscured, came grad­ually into full light once more.

The idea of redemption entertained by primitive Christianity is predominantly eschatological. The

believers feel themselves strangers in g. In the the world, the destruction of which is

Early at hand, and await their blessedness in

Church and the approaching messianic kingdom.

the East. The Redeemer has indeed brought to

his people knowledge and life (Didaehe, ix., x.);. but the latter is more an object of hope than an actual experience; forgiveness of sins is connected with moral change and fulfilment of the new law. The Hellenic conception of the Christian message by the apologists brought prominently for­ward the knowledge imparted by Christ, who, as the perfect teacher, shows the way to " incorruption " by giving his disciples power to overcome evil spirits and walk in the path of moral purity. This intel­lectual moral conception of redemption, typically represented by Justin, had a long life in the Eastern Church, but only a subsidiary influence. The de 

THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG

velopment of dogma was determined by the mystio­realistic conception, as worked out by Irena;us in Pauline phraseology. For him, too, immortality is the goal, which is brought about by an entire re­construction of humanity on a higher plane; hu­manity is placed once more in the right relation to God and receives again his image and a share in his own immortality. Irenams touches on reconcilia­tion, but lays most stress on the removal of death. How little Greek theology, with its lack of a deep consciousness of guilt, was qualified to develop the latter may be seen in Origen, for whom the teaching office of Christ is still central. The treatise of Atha­nasius on the incarnation approaches more closely to the idea of reconciliation than does Irenaeus; but even in him the leading ideas axe the restoration of the true knowledge of God by the life, and the abo­lition of death by the death of Christ. A special place is held in eastern doctrine by the notion that the death of Christ was a purchase price paid to the devil for the setting free of man, who had fallen into his power. This idea, wide spread in the East, is supported by Origen and Gregory of Nyasa, while Gregory Nazianzen and John of Damascus repudi­ate it; in the West it was accepted by Ambrose, Augustine, Leo I., and Gregory I. At bottom only an extension of the common Greek idea of libera­tion from pagan ignorance and the dominion of death, it yet shows consciousness of the need of an equitable basis for the redemption, and leads up to the juristic theories developed in the West.

Western writers were led by their realization of sin as guilt to regard the removal of guilt as the principal feature in the work of redemption. Even as early as Tertullian and Cyprian, it

6. In the was interpreted in legal terms; and be­West till the fore long there grew up the conception

Reforms  of a legal satisfaction made by Christ tion. to God. This begins with Cyprian and is carried on by Hilary and Ambrose. Augustine takes the legal view in conjunction with a mystical doctrine of salvation, and thus weakens it to some extent. For him redemption is a change in the religious ethical state, involving freedom from the devil's power and a progressive repletion with divine strength. He has in his mind a personal re­lation of peace with God, but this aspect of salvar tion he does not carry out to definite dogmatic con­clusions. The juristic idea of western theology was further developed by Anselm, who did not, how­ever, succeed in deducing from the remission of sin an interior change in the sinner. The formal juris. tic treatment does not penetrate the depths of the religious ethical process. Anselm's theory, there­fore, called out an opposing theory from Abelard, resting wholly on the love of God, and was accepted by later medieval theologians only with modifica­tions and additions. Thomas Aquinas regards as the results of Christ's sufferings the forgiveness of sins, deliverance from the power of the devil, the removal of the penalty of sin, reconciliation, and the opening of the gates of heaven. He connects the ideas of reconciliation and redemption, but makes " remission'of blame " less important than " in­fusion of grace " and the consequent ethical move­ment of the will. The historical redeeming work