Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

frequency of less than 5% will require in excess of 1200 points to achieve a 20%

precision.

Ref ID : 1652

903. Fabricius, C. and Burger, M. Biodiversity change and ecological hierarchies

in response to land management in Xeric Succulent Thicket: The bigger

picture.Anonymous Port Elizabeth:Eastern Cape Nature Conservation. :1-18, 1996.

Ecosystems are driven by processes which operate at the landscape, land element,

producer community and consumer community levels. Landscapes in Xeric Succulent

Thicket consist of land elelments (bushclumps) which act as resource patches for

plants and animals. These patches are reduced in size and complexity as the

intensity of herbivory increases. Current understanding of biodiversity and

ecosystem functioning postulates that ecosystems degrade according to an

integrated process of reduction in patch productivity and within-patch

heterogeneity. This leads to a decrease in within-patch species richness, and

an increase in nutrient and energy flow from resource patches into the

surrounding matrix. In smaller patches, palatable plants are exposed to

herbivory, and good light competitors are outcompeted by good colonizers. This

further reduces diversity. At the landscape level, landscape complexity is

reduced through a decrease in the variety of patch types across the landscape

and a reduction in species turnover between patches. Landscapes dominated by

small patches are subject to perpetual 'drought' conditions. Arthropod species

richness and abundance decreases because of the harsher and more simplified

environment, which leads to more severe species interactions and the

simplification of trophic and other ecosystem webs. Regression analysis of

plant species richness on land element diversity, and arthropod species richness

on plant species richness corroborates this paradigm: increasing levels of

herbivory leads to a successive loss of species. As the spatial heterogeneity

in the environment decreases, species become rarer and recruitment eventually

ceases. Weevils are especially well correlated with the diversity of other

ecosystem elements higher up the hierarchy. Snakes and lizards recognized

different resource patches because of their ectothermic physiology - their

resource patches are interclump areas where heat is abundant and where hunting

success is high. They flourish in the degraded areas, especially since avian

and mammalian predators are scarce in such landscapes. Biodiversity at the

ecosystem, landscape and community levels in Xeric Succulent Thicket is severely

affected by herbivory, primarily because of its influence on bushclump size.

The maintenance of large bushclumps is the key to the successful preservation of

biodiversity at the landscape and sub-landscape levels in Xeric Succulent

Thicket.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : BIODIVERSITY; LAND USE; COMMUNAL AREA; GRAZING EFFECTS; PLANT-ANIMAL

INTERACTIONS; VEGETATION CHANGE; VEGETATION DYNAMICS; VELD CONDITION; EASTERN

CAPE; ENERGY; DROUGHT; SUCCULENT KAROO; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL; SOIL NUTRIENTS;

ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Ref ID : 1752

904. Fabricius, C. and Burger, M. Comparison between a nature reserve and

adjacent communal land in Xeric Succulent Thicket: an indigenous plant user's

perspective. South African Journal of Science 93:259-262, 1997.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : NATURE RESERVES; CISKEI; EASTERN CAPE; COMMUNAL AREA; AID;

CONSERVATION; CULTIVATION; MONITORING; SUCCULENT KAROO; VELD MANAGEMENT;

SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; BIODIVERSITY; ENERGY; STATISTICS

Abstract : Local people with knowledge of indigenous plants could constribute to

the management of protected areas while simultaneously improving their options

for employment. Members of a local Xhosa community who lived adjacent to the

Great Fish River nature reserve in the former Ciskei, Eastern Cape, were

employed to assist us with an inventory of locally useful plants. The survey

was designed to quantify differences in plant diversity between the nature

reserve and the adjacent communal area, from the point of view of indigenous

plant users. Tranditional healers and rural villagers who were experienced

users of indigenous plants were recruited with the aid of a community

organisation. Plants which were used for physical and spiritual healing, fuel,

food and construction were identified along paired transects in the nature

reserve and the communal area respectively. Hierarchical richness indices

(HRIs) and the number of recognisable plants as well as their abundance at each

site were used to compare the nature reserve to the communal area. Altogether,

122 utilised plant types were recorded, of which 68% had medicinal or spiritual

value, 12% were used for food, 13% for fuel and 7% for building purposes. These

ratios were similar for both the nature reserve and the communal area. One

hundred and eight (108) useful types of plants were recorded on the nature

reserve and 97 in the communal area. The nature reserve contained 25 'unique'

recognizable plants which were not recorded in the communal area, whereas the

communal area contained 14. Useful plants were more abundant on the nature

reserve than in the communal area, and the average HRI for the nature reserve

was almost double that of the communal area. The advantages to the community

were limited: temporary employment was created and local skills were developed

which might have improved the people's prospects for future employment. The

conservation benefits were more substantial: information became available which

would otherwise have remained hidden, relations between the community and

conservation agencies improved, and credible education programmes in sustainable

resource use could be developed through a participatory approach. The next step

from a management point of view is to provide opportunities for the community to

interpret and apply the results, and with the local people, to explore small

business opportunities based on the cultivation of useful plants. Participatory

research and monitoring could be furthered by putting greater emphasis on the

participatory process than on results, by actively involving local people in the

development of monitoring programmes from the outset, and by interpreting and

deliberating the results of monitoring with them in an interactive way.

Ref ID : 1651

905. Fabricius, C., Burger, M., Allsopp, N., and Gerber, G. Impacts of land use

on the diversity of Xeric Succulent Thicket vegetation: blame it on the

bushclumps.Anonymous Port Elizabeth:Eastern Cape Nature Conservation. :1-17,

1996. This study assesses the influence of domestic herbivores and consumptive

use by humans on the size, species richness and floristics of bushclumps in

Xeric Succulent Thicket in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The

vegetation structure and diversity of a commercial farm and a communal area were

compared to the vegetation of a nature reserve, using paired transects inside

and outside the nature reserve. Pairs of transects were situated close together

on opposite sides of the nature reserve boundary. The percentage cover of the

most palatable shrub species, Portulacaria afra and Grewia robusta was estimated

in a sample of bushclumps at each respective locality as an index of range

condition. An index of bushclump area was obtained by multiplying the longest

axis of a clump by the widest part of the clump perpendicular to the first axis,

i.e. each clump was placed in an imaginary rectangle. The line intercept method

was used to determine the clump:interclump ratios in 10 transects of 500 m at

each locality. The woody and herbaceous species in each clump were recorded,

and the number of species was related to bushclump area. 1. The number of

species in clumps significantly correlated with bushclump area and the

relationship was exponential. 2. The nature reserve had significantly larger

bushclumps than adjacent unconserved land. 3. The nature reserve contained

significantly more species per clump than both the commercial and communal

rangeland. 4. The proportions of sampling lines in the nature reserve which

were intercepted by bushclumps, relative to the total length of the line, were

significantly larger than that of unprotected land. 5. The percentage cover of

P. afra in buschclumps was significantly higher in the nature reserve than on

unconserved land and confirmed the anticipated degradation gradient. The

percentage cover of G. robusta was significantly higher in the nature reserve

than in the communal area, but not significantly higher than on the commercial

farm. 6. Large clumps were characterized by bird-dispersed plant species, while

the species which were not bird dispersed showed no significant association with

any type of clump. 7. Microsites in areas outside bushclumps contained

significantly fewer mycorrhizal spores and less organic material, and very high

aluminium concentrations compared to sites inside clumps. Microsites outside

clumps seemed to be unsuitable for the establishment of seedlings. The

underlying cause of degradation is postulated to be a reduction in bushclump

size through overgrazing and human use, which leads to a decrease in nurse sites

for seedlings of bird-dispersed plants and a gradual extinction of bird-

dispersed trees and shrubs, together with other species associated with clump

interiors. Xeric Succulent Thicket has an extremely low sustainable stocking

rate, whether in a pristine or degraded state. The profit-making phase is the

transient period between a well-conserved and degraded condition: there is no

evidence that the vegetation reverts to its former state after this shift has

taken place. For conservation purposes, the size of bushclumps which exceed 5

m2. This was the inflection point below which species richness in bushclumps

decreased rapidly. To maintain Xeric Succulent Thicket outside protected areas,

farm incomes should be supplemented by land uses other than commercial livestock

production. These include nature tourism, stud farming or low-intensity

commodity farming, e.g. feedlots and medicinal plants.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND USE; BIODIVERSITY; COMMUNAL AREA; PLANT-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS;

CONSERVATION; GRAZING EFFECTS; EASTERN CAPE; VEGETATION CHANGE; NATURE RESERVES;

STOCKING RATE; LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION; SUCCULENT KAROO; VELD CONDITION

Ref ID : 2501

906. Faculty of Agriculture and ARDRI Qamata Irrigation Scheme: Report.

Commission of enquiry review report.Anonymous , 1996.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : IRRIGATION; SOIL EROSION; EROSION; CISKEI; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION;

LAND REFORM; ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Notes : The purpose of the report was to examine the status of Qamata Irrigation

Scheme and to assess its future sustainability. A descriptive survey method was

used. An interview schedule was prepared and participants, landholders and

farmers at the scheme were asked to respond to specific questions. Also, free

for all discussions were held with farmers on the schemes with the aim of

getting their viewpoints and to share ideas on terms of reference. There are

major constraints and challenges affecting agricultural production and progress

at Qamata Irrigation Scheme. The distribution of water within the scheme is

problematic for several reasons. The weir, main canal and leidams are subject

to the effect of soil erosion, which is a major environmental problem at Qamata.

Field canals and associated equipment are in poor condition. Generally surface

irrigation requires careful land preparation. Farming households in Qmata are

extremely poor. The scheme was found not to have addressed the need for markets

by small-scale producers. There was a general absence of information in the

scheme, which inhibits commercially oriented agricultural decision-making. This

report is obtainable from the Ministry, Department of Agriculture, Bisho. See

also ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 2500

907. Faculty of Agriculture and ARDRI Ncora Irrigation Scheme.Anonymous ARDRI. ,

1996.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : IRRIGATION; TRANSKEI; GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES; ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Notes : The purpose of the study was to investigate and report the present

situation at the Ncora Irrigation Scheme and to further suggest and map out

clear guidelines that government must follow in order to revive the Ncora

Irrigation Scheme. Information was gathered through field surveys and secondary

sources of information. The report contains information on the general overview

of Cofimvaba District and the description of the Ncora Irrigation Scheme, an

analysis of the present situation at the Scheme, the financial assessment of the

scheme. Information on the general assessment of the scheme, solutions to the

problems at the scheme and recommendations for the transformation of the Ncora

Irrigation Scheme are also contained in the report. The report is obtainable

from ARDRI, at the university of Fort Hare. See ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 1426

908. Fair, T.J.D. The Surplus People: forced removals in South Africa. J.C.A.S

6(1/2):228-231, 1987.

Reprint : In File,

Notes : This book concentrates on events in the 1970s and later, and is regarded

by the authors as an up-date of conditions described in Cosmos Desmond's The

Discarded People, published in 1970. A five-volume report appeared in 1983.

The present book aims to reach a wider audience - that is, literate people in

the areas investigated, community workers, and concerned outsiders. The aim is

more than simply the spreading of information. It is to "contribute to and

expand the campaign against forced removals". However this book is viewed, one

is left to wonder what has been the impact that twenty years of relocation have

had upon those who have directly experienced removals -acceptance, resignation

or deep resentment.

Ref ID : 1099

909. Farrington, J. Organisational roles in farmer participatory research and

extension: lessons from the last decade. Natural resource perspectives, number

27.Anonymous Farrington J. London:Overseas Development Institute (ODI). :1-4,

1998.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Notes : Experience over the last decade suggests that participatory approaches

to technical change are falling into two broad camps: public sector approaches

are generally part of a client orientation strategy and rarely aim to do more

than enhance the functions of technology design and delivery. By contrast, NGO

approaches generally aim for the empowerment of weaker groups. This paper

reviews the complementarities and tensions between the approaches, and suggests

ways forward.

Ref ID : 1006

910. February, E.C. Archaeological charcoals as indicators of vegetation change

and human fuel choice in the late Holocene at Elands Bay, Western Cape Province,

South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 19:347-354, 1992.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : ARCHAEOLOGY; VEGETATION CHANGE; PALAEOENVIRONMENTS; ENERGY; CLIMATE

CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY

Abstract : Methods used in the analysis of 1163 pieces of charcoal from Elands

Bay, SA, are described. Results from three archaeological sites (Tortoise Cave,

Spring Cave and Mike Taylors Midden) show that the most common woody species at

Elands Bay today also occurred in the archaeological record over the last 4000

years. This would suggest that climatic change over the last 4000 years has not

been sufficient to influence the species composition of wood brought into the

sites by people. There are, however, differences in species composition of

charcoal from Tortoise Cave on the one hand and Mike Taylors Midden (MTM) and

Spring Cave on the other. These differences reflect fundamental differences in

environment between the sites.

Ref ID : 1005

911. February, E.C. Rainfall reconstruction using wood charcoal from two

archaeological sites in South Africa. Quaternary Research 42:100-107, 1994.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : RAINFALL; ARCHAEOLOGY; PALAEOENVIRONMENTS; CLIMATE CHANGE;

ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; CLIMATE

Abstract : Major components of most southern African archaeological sites are

stone, bone and charcoal. A new technique for climate reconstruction utilizes

measurements of vessel size and frequency in the cross-sectional xylem anatomy

of archaeological charcoal from Collingham Shelter and Mhlwazini Cave in the

Natal Drakensberg. Previous wood anatomical studies have shown that links exist

among vessel diameter, vessel frequency and climate. The present study

demonstrates that in relation to rainfall, vessel diameter in the species Protea

caffra and Protea roupelliae correlated positively, whereas vessel frequency

correlated negatively. In P.roupelliae, mean vessel diameter increases from 46

to 62 micrometres along a rainfall gradient ranging frm 760 to 1665 mm. The

signficiant correlations between rainfall and tangential vessel diameter for a

charred sample of P. roupelliae suggest that such measures on an archaeological

charcoal sample may be used to reconstruct rainfall patterns through time.

Using nine assemblages of archaeolgoical charcoal, generalized patterns of

wetter and drier periods can be postulated. Comparison with contemporary values

indicates that at 200 and 2400 yr. B.P. the area near the archaeological sites

was wetter than at present. A dry phase occurred between 1300 and 300 yr B.P.

Values for the contemporary wood sample are the lowest observed, indicating that

present conditions are much drier than those at any time within the last ca.

2000 yr. Dating resolution however, is insufficent to allow more-detailed

interpretation of rainfall conditions over the past 2000 yr.

Ref ID : 1007

912. February, E.C. and Van der Merwe, N.J. Stable carbon isotope ratios of wood

charcoal during the past 4 000 years: anthropogenic and climatic influences.

South African Journal of Science 88:291-292, 1992.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CLIMATE CHANGE; PALAEOENVIRONMENTS; VEGETATION CHANGE; ARCHAEOLOGY;

ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; CLIMATE

Notes : The principal goal of this paper is to demonstrate the potential for

using 13C/12C ratios (delta C 13) of wood charcoal from archaeological sites as

a climate indicator. An important aspect of this is the need to determine, and

thus exclude, the extent of the anthropogenic CO2 contribution to delta C 13

values. It was concluded that changes in delta C 13 values of the charcoal from

archaeological sites through time are probably due to variations in

precipitation.

Ref ID : 592

913. Feely, J.M. Did Iron Age man have a role in the history of Zululand's

wilderness landscapes? South African Journal of Science 76:150-152, 1980.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : PALAEOENVIRONMENTS; ARCHAEOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; VEGETATION

CHANGE; LAND USE; HYDROLOGY; SAVANNA

Notes : Recent archaeological research on Iron Age man in the Natal lowlands

indicates his presence there for not less than 1600 years. Land-use by such

people for so long may have extensively altered the original vegetation.

Wilderness landscapes in the Zululand wildlife sanctuaries - all low lying and

containing Iron Age sites - may therefore be, at least partly, anthropogenic.

Some implications of this possibility for biogeography, hydrology and the

management of sanctuaries are indicated. There is a prima facie case for

research on lowland 'savannas' to determine to what extent an open tree canopy,

a luxuriant grass layer, and also scrub-encroachment are the result of past

interference by Iron Age man. This applies not only in Natal but also in the

Transvaal lowveld.

Ref ID : 887

914. Feely, J.M. Smelting in the Iron Age of Transkei. South African Journal of

Science 81:10-11, 1985.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : ARCHAEOLOGY; DEFORESTATION; TRANSKEI; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; CISKEI

Notes : During an initial period of archaeological and ecological reconnaissance

in 1983 for a project to investigate the influence of pre-colonial farming upon

the econology of Transkei, four Iron Age sites (3042, 3054, 3062 and 3075)

contained artefacts inconclusively suggesting smelting. The significance of

these discoveries lies in the fact that published historical and archaeological

evidence up to this time for the smelting of any metal in Transkei and Ciskei is

almost entirely negative.

Ref ID : 1704

915. Feely, J.M. The distribution of iron age farming settlement in Transkei:

470 to 1870.University of Natal. , 1986. Three-quarters of Trankei is covered by

grassland, most of which is thought by many botanists to be secondary to forest

destruction by Bantu speaking farmers. But, the archaeological and

historiographic evidence for farming settlement elsewhere in southern and

eastern Africa, suggests that comparable 'secondary' grassland was probably

distributed much as it is at present, at the time of the earliest farming

settlements (dated to about 1 750 BP). Evidence to test these alternative

hypotheses in Transkei was indirect, incomplete, and confined almost entirely to

the shoreline of the Indian Ocean. Therefore, a project whose main objective was

to determine the probable spatiotemporal distribution of farming settlement in

Transkei prior to 1870, was initiated by Prof. J.E. Granger, Department of

Botany, University of Transkei. A stratified random sampling procedure was

developed, based upon the experience of archaeological surveys elsewhere.

Representative transects were selected to include proportionately the major

physical variables below 1 800m a.s.l. in an area of some 40 000 km2. Most of

these variables are presently aligned approximately parallel to the coastline.

Consequently, transects were aligned from the ocean shoreline to Transkei's

inland boundary, across three of the largest river drainage basins in the north,

centre and south of Transkei. In these transcects twelve disjunct study areas

400 - 1 400 km2 were defined. Within each study area, sample units