F I r s t d r a f t

ANNEX 1:

Middle Powers of Europe for selected years according to the Yearbooks of International Disarmament of the League of Nations.
Table 1 - 1927

Area Population Army Aircraft Navy (tons)

Hungary 92.928 8.364.653 35.103 n/a n/a

Poland 388.279 29.249.000 290.000 n/a 2.812

Spain 511.985 22.444.000 113.434 600 117.100

Turkey 762.736 13.139.000 120.000 n/a 45.623

Yugoslavia 248.488 12.492.000 107.541 n/a 2.912

Table 2 - 1932

Area Population Army Aircraft Navy (tons)

Hungary 92.928 8.683.700 34.993 n/a n/a

Poland 388.000 31.148.000 265.980 700 6.020

Spain 511.985 22.940.000 119.210 n/a 129.783

Turkey 762.736 13.648.000 140.000 n/a 44.466

Yugoslavia 249.000 13.931.000 112.610 568 13.570

Table 3 - 1936

Area Population Army Aircraft Navy (tons)

Hungary 92.928 8.949.000 35.026 n/a n/a

Poland 388.000 33.823.000 266.005 700 6.091

Spain 511.985 24.849.000 117.092 208 136.341

Turkey 762.736 16.201.000 194.000 370 53.720

Yugoslavia 247.542 14.950.900 115.864 552 9.512

Table 4 - 1939

Area Population Army Aircraft Navy (tons)

Hungary 92.928 n/a 149.522 n/a n/a

Poland 388.000 35.090.000 300.000 n/a n/a

Spain 511.985 24.849.000 n/a n/a 90.994

Turkey 762.736 16.158.000 194.000 370 63.948

Yugoslavia 247.542 15.630.000 134.128 484 16.057

1 For instance, see Cemil Koçak, Türk-Alman İlişkileri : 1923-1939, (Ankara: Türk Târih Kurumu, 1991); Dilek Barlas, “Friends or Foes: Diplomatic Relations between Italy and Turkey, 1923-1936,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 36/2 (May 2004): 231-252.

2 See Serhan Ada, Türk-Fransız İlişkilerinde Hatay Sorunu: 1918-1939, (İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2005); Yücel Güçlü, The Question of Sanjak of Alexandretta: A Study in Turkish Syrian Relations, (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2001). Güçlü, a creer diplomat, is a prolific writer on Turkish interwar foreign policy. Nevertheless, his works are usually narratives of specific issues. See, for instance, Yücel Güçlü, “Turkey’s Entrance into the League of Nations,” Middle Eastern Studies 39/1, (January 2003): 186-206; “The Nyon Arrangement of 1937 and Turkey,” Middle Eastern Studies 38/1, (January 2002): 53-70; “Fascist Italy’s ‘Mare Nostrum’ Policy and Turkey,” “The Uneasy Relationship: Turkey's Foreign Policy vis-à-vis the Soviet Union at the Outbreak of the Second World War” Mediterranean Quarterly 13/3 (2002) 58-93.

3 Aydın’s work may be regarded as an exception in this regard. Aydın focuses on history, geography and leadership in search of an analytical framework to understand Turkish foreign policy behaviour. Mustafa Aydın, “Determinants of Turkish Foreign Policy: Historical Framework and Traditional Inputs,” Middle Eastern Studies 35/4, (October 1999) 152 – 186.

4 For an elaborate presentation of the restrictive impact of this archive-access policy on foreign policy research in Turkey, see Cemil Koçak, “Hatay Neden Sorun Oldu? Neden Sorun Olmaktan Çıktı?, Tarih ve Toplum Yeni Yaklaşımlar 3, (Bahar 2006): 265-272.

5 It may be worth-noting that a popular Turkish encylopedia of Great Powers featured a section on Turkey, implying that it was one of the eight Great Powers in the world. The others were naturally Germany, Britain, Soviet Russia, Italy, Japan, France and the US. Faik Sabri, Büyük Devletler, (İstanbul: Yedigün, 1937-1938).

6 See, for instance, Cavid Oral, Akadeniz Meselesi, Vol. II, (İstanbul: Cumhuriyet Matbaası, 1945): 57.

7 Geoffrey Bennet, Naval Battles of the First World War, (London: Pengiun Books, 2001): 14

8 Hyperpowers

9 For an attempt at grading of powers, see Martin Wight, Power Politics, edited by Hedley Bull and Carsted Holbraad, (New York: Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1978): 295-301.

10 Wight, Power Politics…, 65.

11 Andrew F. Cooper, Richard A. Higgot and Kim Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers: Australia and Canada in a Changing World Order, (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1993): 17-18.

12 Carsten Holbraad, Middle Powers in International Politics, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984): 4.

13 Jonathan H. Ping, Middle Power Statecraft: Indonesia, Malaysia and the Asia-Pacific, (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005): 51.

14 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,18.

15 Holbraad, Middle Powers…, 59-61.

16 Holbraad, Middle Powers…, 205-6.

17 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,19.

18 Ping, Middle Power Statecraft…

19 Ping, Middle Power Statecraft…,22.

20 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…, 116.

21 Holbraad, Middle Powers…, 68-69.

22 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,117.

23 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,118.

24 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…, 136-137.

25 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,141.

26 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,118.

27 Andrew F. Cooper, “Niche Diplomacy: A Conceptual Overview,” in Niche Diplomacy: Middle Powers after the Cold War, Andrew F. Cooper (ed.), (London: MacMillan Press Ltd., 1997): 8.

28 Cooper, “Niche Diplomacy…”, 8.

29 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…, 4.

30 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,23-24

31 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,115.

32 Oyvind Osterud, “Regional Great Powers,” in Regional Great Powers in International Politics, Neumann, Iver B. (ed.), (New York: St. Martin’s Pres, 1992): 6.

33 Osterud, “Regional Great Powers,” 6-7.

34 Osterud, “Regional Great Powers,”7.

35 Osterud, “Regional Great Powers,”7.

36 Edward Carr, The Twenty Years (London: MacMillan&Co. Ltd, 1951), 103-104.

37 Karl Polayni, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon Press, 2001), 21-22.

38 James Barros, The Corfu Incident of 1923: Mussolini and the League of Nations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), 303.

39 Barros, The Corfu Incident…, 88.

40 William I. Shorrock, From Ally to Enemy: The Enigma of Fascist Italy in French Diplomacy, 1920-1940 (Kent: The Kent State University Press, 1988), 42.

41 Shorrock, From Ally to Enemy…, 42.

42 Shorrock, From Ally to Enemy…, 36.

43 Shorrock, From Ally to Enemy…, 47.

44 Brian McKercher, “Old Diplomacy and New: The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy, 1919-1939” in Diplomacy and World Power, Michael Dockrill and Brian McKercher (eds.), (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 84.

45 McKercher, “Old Diplomacy and…,” 83-84.

46 Piotr S. Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies 1919-1925: French-Czechoslovak-Polish Relations from the Paris Peace Conference to Locarno (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1962), 320.

47 Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies…, 321.

48 Aristide Briand, Discours et Ecrits de Politique Etrangère: La Paix-l’Union Européenne, la Société des Nations, Achille Elisha (ed.), (Paris: Plon, 1965): 149.

49 Erik Goldstein, “The Evolution of British Diplomatic Strategy for the Locarno Pact, 1924-1925” in Diplomacy and World Power, 126.

50 Goldstein, “The Evolution of British Diplomatic…,” 126.

51 Goldstein, “The Evolution of British Diplomatic…,” 125.

52 Carr, The Twenty Years…, 106.

53 Jon Jacobson, “Locarno, Britain and the Security of Europe” in Locarno Revisited, European Diplomacy 1920-1929, Gaynor Johnson (ed.), (London: Routledge, 2004), 16.

54 Jules Laroche, Au Quai d’Orsay avec Briand et Poincaré, 1913-1926 (Paris: Hachette, 1957), 228-229.

55 Polayni, The Great Transformation…, 22.

56 Patrick O. Cohrs, “The Quest for a New Concert of Europe: British Pursuits of German Rehabilitation and European Stability in the 1920s” in Locarno Revisited, European Diplomacy 1920-1929, p. 42.

57 Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies…, 359.

58 Anthony Adamthwaite, Grandeur and Misery: France’s Bid for Power in Europe 1914-1940 (London: Arnold, 1995), 121.

59 Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies…, 363.

60 Adamthwaite, Grandeur and Misery…, 120-21

61 Shorrock, From Ally to Enemy…, 32.

62 Allan Cassels, “Locarno: Early Test of Fascist Intentions” in Locarno Revisited…, 91.

63 Alan Cassels, Mussolini’s Early Diplomacy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 126.

64 Holbraad, Middle Powers…,3.

65 Wight, Power Politics…, 65

66 Holbraad, Middle Powers…, 33-35.

67 Holbraad, Middle Powers…, 34.

68 Selim Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War: An ‘Active’ Neutrality, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989): 3

69 Holbraad, Middle Powers…, 89.

70 Andrew Webster, “Making Disarmament Work: The Implementation of the International Disarmament Provisions of the League of Nations Covenant, 1919-1925,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 16/3, (2005): 560-563.

71 The whole series of Yearbooks of International Disarmament from 1924 to 1939 is accessible electronically at http://www.library.northwestern.edu/govinfo/collections/league.

72 J. C. Smuts, The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion, (London: Hadder and Stoughton, 1918): 37-38.

73 Holbraad, Middle Powers…, 48. Interestingly, 13 years later, in 1931 Turkish Foreign Minister Tevfik Rüştü Aras went a step further than General Smuts and hinted that Ankara would not consider joining the League of Nations without a permanent seat in the League Council. T.B.M.M Zabıt Ceridesi, Term IV, Vol. 3, (15 July 1931): 133.

74 Comparative data based on the on the League statistics are provided in Annex 1.

75 On the significance of population in international power hierarchy, see Geoffrey McNicoll, “Population Weights in the International Order,” Population and Development Review 25/3, (September 1999): 411-442.

76 Norbert von Bischoff, Ankara: Türkiye’deki Yeni bir Oluşun İzahı, Burhan Belge (trans.), (Ankara: Ulus Basımevi, 1936): 295.

77 Holbraad, Middle Powers…,68-69.

78 For a discussion of Ottoman diplomacy and European state system, see A. Nuri Yurdusev, “The Ottoman Attitude Toward Diplomacy,” in Ottoman Diplomacy: Conventional or Unconventional? A. Nuri Yurdusev, (ed.), (Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan, 2005): 21-30.

79 See Dilek Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Policy Strategies in an Uncertain World, 1929-1939, (Leiden, Brill, 1998).

80T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı, Dışişleri Hizmetleri ve Teşkilatlanması, (Ankara: T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı Hazine Genel Müdürlüğü ve Milletlerarasi İktisadi İşbirliği Teşkilatı, 1963): 59-65.

81 Osterud, “Regional Great Powers…,” 8.

82 Wight, Power Politics…, 63.

83 Holbraad, Middle Powers…,189.

84 Iver B. Neumann, “Poland as a Regional Great Power: the Interwar Heritage,” Regional Great Powers in International Politics, Neumann, Iver B. (ed.), (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992): 140)

85 Neumann, “Poland as a Regional Great Power… “ 123.

86 Neumann, “Poland as a Regional Great Power… “129.

87 Neumann, “Poland as a Regional Great Power… “ 132.

88 Neumann, “Poland as a Regional Great Power… “ 133.

89 Neumann, “Poland as a Regional Great Power… “ 135-136.

90 Neumann, “Poland as a Regional Great Power… “ 138.

91 Rolf Ahmann, “’Localization of Conflicts’ or ‘Indivisibility of Peace’: The German and Soviet Approaches towards Collective Security and East Central Europe, 1925-1939,” in The Quest for Stability: Problems of West European Security, 1918-1957, Ahmann, R., A. M. Birke, and M. Howard (eds.), (Oxford: Oxford University Pres, 1993): 226).

92 Wandycz, France and her Eastern Allies…, 283.

93 Joshua B. Spero, Bridging the European Divide: Middle Power Politics and Regional Security Dilemmas, (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.: 2004): 3.

94 Spero, Bridging the European Divide…, 307.

95 Spero, Bridging the European Divide…, 25.

96In his six-day marathon speech, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk devoted a large section to Rauf Orbay's anti-republican stand and acts. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Speech (Ankara: Başbakanlık Basımevi, 1981): 676-697. For Rauf Orbay’s remarks, see “Rauf Bey’in Vatan Gazetesine Demeci, 1 Kasım 1923 [1 November 1923], in Yücel Demirel and Osman Zeki Konur, (eds.) CHP Grup Toplantısı Tutanakları (1923-1924), (İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2002): 23-30. Cf. Rauf Orbay, Cehennem Değirmeni: Siyasi Hatıralar II, 2nd edition (İstanbul: Emre Yayınları, 2001).

97 See Ali İhsan Gencer, Bahriye’de Yapılan Islahat Hareketleri ve Bahriye Nezareti’nin Kuruluşu (1789-1867) (İstanbul: Edebiyat Fakültesi Basımevi, 1985).

98 [Saim Besbelli], "Deniz Cephesi," in Türk İstiklal Harbi: Deniz Cephesi ve Hava Harekatı, Vol. 5 (Ankara: Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1964).

99 Afif Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanmasi, 1923-1960 (İstanbul: Deniz Basımevi, 1967): 13.

100 See Rauf Orbay, Cehennem Değirmeni: Siyasi Hatıralar I, 2nd. Edition (İstanbul: Emre Yayınları, 2001).

101 William Hale, Turkish Politics and the Military, (London: Routledge, 1994): 76; Andrew Mango, Atatürk (London: John Murray, 1999): 415-417.

102 İsmet İnönü, Hatıralar, Vol. II, (Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1987): 191.

103 Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi (TBMM) Zabıt Ceridesi, Vol. II, Term 2, Meeting 2 (22 December 1924): 216-220.

104 Fahri Çoker, Bahriyemizin Yakın Tarihinden Kesitler (Ankara: Dz. K.K. Karargah Basımevi, 1994): 179-183.

105 Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donaması…, 21-23; and Raşit Metel, Atatürk ve Donanma…, (İstanbul: Deniz Basımevi, 1966) 52-58.

106 Metel, Atatürk ve Donanma…, 52.

107 Metel, Atatürk ve Donanma…., 58; M. Celaleddin Orhan, Bir Bahriyelinin Anılari, 1918-1981 (İstanbul: Kastaş Yayınları, 2001): 259.

108 Erik Jan Zürcher, Political Opposition in the Early Turkish Republic: The Progressive Republican Party (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1991).

109 TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi (22 December 1924): 287-304.

110 Before the split in the ranks of CHP, interestingly enough Ali İhsan Eryavuz tabled a motion against Rauf Orbay in the party assembly for his comments in newspaper Vatan. Demirel and Konur, CHP Grup Toplantısı…., 17-20.

111 Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Siyasi Hatıralar, Part II (Ankara: Doğan Kardeş Yayınları, 1960): 123. Foreign observers shared the same view. Public Record Office (PRO) FO 371 10870 E3338/3338/44 (1 June 1925); Ministere de Affaires Entrangeres (MAE), Serie E Levant/Turquie, Vol 76/II, no. 305 (24 December 1924).

112 MAE, Serie E, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 84, no. 306, (20 August 1923): 12.

113 Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanması…, 21-23.

114 Afif Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanmasının Kuruluşu Sırasında 60 Yıl Hizmet, (1918-1977), Vol. 1, (İstanbul: Deniz Basımevi, 2005): 89.

115 Serhat Güvenç, Birinci Dünya Savaşına Giden Yolda Osmanlıların Dretnot Düşleri, (İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2008 forthcoming).

116 See Selahittin Özçelik, Donanma-yı Osmani Muavenet-i Milliye Cemiyeti (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2000); Mehmet Beşikçi, The Organized Mobilization of Popular Sentiments: The Ottoman Navy League, 1909-1919, Unpublished MA Thesis, Boğaziçi University, Social Science Institute, İstanbul, 1999.

117 BCA, 030.18.1.1/80.525.8 (6 February 1925).

118 Metel, Atatürk ve Donanma..., 57.

119 TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi (22 December 1924): 227.

120 Hulusi Kaymaklı, Havacılık Tarihinde Türkler 2, (1918-1939), (Ankara: Hava Kuvvetleri Yayını, 1997): 161.

121 Geoffery Till, "Adopting the Aircraft Carrier: The British, American and Japanese Case Studies," in Military Innovation in the Interwar Period, eds. Williamson Murray, Allan R. Millett (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1996): 207-208.

122 Rimanelli, Marco, Italy Between Europe and the Mediterranean: Diplomacy and Naval Strategy from Unification to NATO, 1800s-2000 (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1997): 500-506.

123 In this respect, the organization of Turkish military aviation represents a hybrid approach between an independent air force and an air service designed for the benefit of the parent military service. Charles M. Westernhoff, “Airpower and Political Culture,” Airpower Journal 11(4) (Winter 1997): 49. By 1973 the Turkish navy built its own “air service” with both fixed-wing and rotary-wing naval aircraft. See Serhat Güvenç, "Deniz Havacılığın Türkiye'de Seyri," Savunma ve Havacılık (September 2000): 28-33; İki Mavi: Türk Deniz Havacılık Tarihi, (İstanbul: Deniz Basımevi, 2007): 57-107.

124 For recent contributions, see W. Murray and A.R. Millet (eds.) Military Innovation in the Interwar Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1996); and Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine Between the Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999).

125 See Holger Herwig, "Innovation Ignored: The Submarine Problem - Germany, Britain and the United States, 1919-1939," in Murray and Williamson, 227-264. For comparable Soviet and Italian experiences, see Jürgen Rohwer and Mikhail Monakov, “The Soviet Union’s Ocean-Going Fleet, 1935-1956,” International History Review 18(4) (November 1996): 838-845; Rimanelli, Italy Between Europe…, 494-495.

126 Büyüktuğrul, Büyük Atamız…, 92. A well-informed observer later claimed that a certain strand in the Turkish military advocated abolishing the navy altogether. Abidin Daver, "Donanmamızın İhyası İsmet Paşanın Muvaffak Olduğu En Büyük Eserlerinden Biridir," Cumhuriyet (25 August 1930).

127 Willamson Murray, "Innovation: Past and Future," in Murray and Millet, 312-313.

128 When it was inaugurated in 1930, the Naval War College curriculum included infantry tactics at company and battalion levels drawing on experiences from the Gallipoli War and the War of Independence. Afif Büyüktuğrul, Osmanlı Deniz Harp Tarihi ve Cumhuriyet Donanması, Vol. IV (İstanbul: Deniz Kuvvetleri Basımevi, 1984). 641.

129 Osman Nuri, “Tahtelbahir ve Göreceği İşler,” Deniz Mecmuası 41/312 (March 1929): 83

130 Kaymaklı, Havacılık Tarihinde 2…, 160 and Raşit Metel, Türk Denizaltıcılık Tarihi (İstanbul: Deniz Basımevi, 1960): 31.

131 For an argument that the Yavuz had enjoyed an undeserved popularity see Hasan Ersel, "Yavuz Geliyor Yavuz," Toplumsal Tarih 76/4, (April 2000): 28-39.

132 PRO FO 371/11544 E2050/523/44 (29 March 1926).

133 Robert Olson, “The Kurdish Rebellions of Sheikh Said (1925), Mt. Ararat (1930), and Dersim (1937-38): Their Impact on the Development of the Turkish Air Force and on Kurdish and Turkish Nationalism”, Welt des Islams 40/1, (March 2000): 67-94.

134 Phillip S. Meilinger, “Clipping the Bombers Wings: The Geneva Disarmament Conference and the Royal Air Force, 1932-1934,” War in History 6/3, (1999): 323.

135 Yavuz Özgüldür, Türk-Alman İlişkileri (1923-1945), (Ankara: Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1993): 65-69.

136 Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, Politikada 45 Yıl, 2^nd ed., (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1984): 105.

137 BCA 45.292.15 “General Staff to Prime Ministry,” (3 June 1927). The written recommendation of Marshal Çakmak on disbanding the Ministry of Marine was also brought to the attention of President Atatürk.

138 Zürcher, Political Opposition…, 92-93.

139 See David B. Ralston, Importing the European Army (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990): 54-55. For naval missions see, Celalettin Yavuz, Osmanlı Bahriyesi’nde Yabancı Misyonlar, (İstanbul: Dz. İk. Grp. K.’lığı Basımevi, [1999].

140 Jehuda Wallach, Bir Askeri Yardımın Anatomisi: Türkiye'de Prusya-Alman Askeri Heyetleri, 1835-1919 (translated by F. Çeliker) (Ankara: Genel Kurmay Basımevi, 1985); Chris B. Rooney, "The International Significance of the British Naval Mission to the Ottoman Empire," Middle Eastern Studies 34/1 (January 1998).

141 Orbay, Cehennem Degirmeni I…, 160.

142 PRO FO 371/10870, E3338/3338/44 (1 June 1925).

143 Afif Büyüktuğrul, "Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Donanmasının Ellinci Yılı," Belleten 37/148, (October 1973): 503.

144 PRO FO 371/10870, E4368/3543/44 (27 July 1925). London was interested in restoring naval links with Turkey. In response to a British shipyard's request for clearance to bid for a Turkish tender for destroyers, the Admiralty wrote "the fact that our relations with Turkey are strained is an additional reason for encouraging Messrs. Beardmore to tender, as it is preferable that the Turks should have to rely on us for ammunition, torpedoes, spare parts, etc." PRO FO 371/11521, E121713/44 (20 February 1926).

145 PRO FO 371/10870, E7305/3543/44 (26 November 1925).

146 PRO FO 371/11544, E4168/513/44 (10 July 1926).

147 Özgüldür, Türk-Alman İlişkileri…, 63.

148 Özgüldür, Türk-Alman İlişkileri…, 64-65.

149 Cemil Koçak, Türk-Alman İlişkileri 1923-1939 (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1991): 46.

150 Büyüktuğrul, Cunhuriyet Donanması…, 27.

151 Koçak, Türk-Alman İlişkileri…, 46.

152 Büyüktuğrul, Osmanlı Deniz Harp…, 622.

153 PRO FO 371/11544 E2050/513/44 (29 March 1926).

154 Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanması…, 32

155 Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanması…, 32

156 It should be noted that France was the only Triple Entente power with which Turkey had cordial relations at the time. MAE, Serie E, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 77/I, no. 305, (1 and 10 November 1926).

157 MAE, Serié E, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 599, No. 305, (12 March 1930).

158 Özgüldür, Türk-Alman İlişkileri…, 95.

159 Roger Dingman, Power in the Pacific: The Origins of the Naval Arms Limitation, 1914-1922, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1976.): 78.

160 Dingman, Power in the Pacific…, 217.

161 Zora Steiner, “The League of Nations and the Quest for Security,” in The Quest for Stability: Problems of West European Security, 1918-1957, Ahmann, R., A. M. Birke, M. Howard (eds.), (Oxford: Oxford University Pres, 1993): 61.

162 Steiner, “The League of Nations…, 61.

163 Steiner, “The League of Nations…, 64-65.

164 Philip Towle, “British Security and Disarmament Policy in Europe in the 1920s,” in The Quest for Stability: Problems of West European Security, 1918-1957, Ahmann, R., A. M. Birke, M. Howard (eds.), (Oxford: Oxford University Pres, 1993): 148

165 Towle, “British Security..., 149.

166 Maurice Vaisse, “Security and Disarmament: Problems in the Development of the Disarmament Debates, 1919-1934,” in The Quest for Stability: Problems of West European Security, 1918-1957, Ahmann, R., A. M. Birke, M. Howard (eds.), (Oxford: Oxford University Pres, 1993): 189-190.

167 [Afet İnan], Yurt Bilgisi Notlarımdan Askerlik Vazifesi, (İstanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1930): 36-37.

168 David R. Stone, “Imperialism and Soverignty: The League of Nations’ Drive to Control the Global Arms Trade,” Journal of Contemporary History 35/2, (2000): 224

169 Dick Richardson, The Evolution of British Disarmament Policy in the 1920s, (London: Pinter Publishers, 1989): 46-47.

170 B. J. C. McKercher, “Old Diplomacy and New: The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy, 1919-1939,” in Diplomacy and World Power: Studies in British Foreign Policy, 1890-1950, M. Dockrill and Brian McKercher (eds.), (Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres, 1996): 84.

171 McKercher, “Old Diplomacy and New...,” 84.

172 Raymond G. O’Connor, Force and Diplomacy: Essays Military and Diplomatic, (Florida: University of Miami Pres, 1972: 25). See also Raymond G. O’Connor, Perilous Equilibrium: The United States and the London Naval Conference of 1930, (Lawrence: University of Kansas Pres, 1963: 125).

173 Dingman, Power in the Pacific…, 212.

174 Dingman, Power in the Pacific…, 216.

175 Roland Aimé Chaput, Disarmament in British Foreign Policy, (London: Unwin Brothers Ltd., 1935): 198.

176 Dingman, Power in the Pacific…, 208-209.

177 Towle, “British Security…,” 136.

178 Chaput, Disarmament in British…, 130: n. 1.

179 See E. Goldstein, J. Maurer and E. R. May (eds.), The Washington Conference, 1921-22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (Essex: Frank Cass, 1994).

180 PRO FO 371/9598 A3838/52/45 (24 June 1924).

181 For an interesting comparison of Turkish and Greek naval strengths, see PRO FO 371/13085, E252/43/44 (5 January 1928). For the Ottoman naval units, see Bernd Langensiepen and Ahmet Güleryüz, The Ottoman Steam Navy: 1828-1923 (İstanbul: Denizler Kitapevi, 2000).

182 PRO FO 371/10223 E6637/3189/44 (28 July 1924).

183 See for instance, Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, “The 1930 Greek-Turkish Naval Protocol,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 9/1 (March 1998): 92-93.

184 PRO ADM 1/9992 NID 02286/MO87/40 (15 December 1939).

185 Robert W. Lambert, Soviet Disarmament Policy: 1922-1931, Research Report 64-2, (Washington, D.C.: United States Arms Control Control and Disarmament Agency,

1964: 6-7.

186 Lambert, Soviet Disarmament Policy…, 7-8.

187 Cited in Lambert, Soviet Disarmament Policy…, 11-12.

188 For foreign assessments of Turkish naval programs in that period, see Serhat Güvenç, “Yabancı Arşivlere Göre Cumhuriyetin İlk Yıllarında Deniz Kuvvetleri” Deniz Kuvvetleri Dergisi, No. 586, (March 2003): 3-11.

189 SHM, Carton 1BB2/86, Bulletin de Rensignements, No. 1231 (December 1924): 58.

190 SHM, Carton 1BB7/189 “Marine Turquie: Renseigments Generaux: Chapitre Second” (10 July 1924).

191 PRO FO 371/11557, E7070/7070/44 (28 December 1926).

192 For instance, see Martin Thomas, “To Arm an Ally: French Arms Sales to Romania, 1926-1949,” Journal of Strategic Studies 19/2 (June 1996): 231-259.

193 For an account of British naval policy, see David Mac Gregor, “Former Naval Cheapskate: Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill and the Royal Navy, 1924-1929,” Armed Forces and Society 19/3 (Spring 1993): 319-333.

194 Keith Krause, Arms and the State: Patterns of Military Production and Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992): 72-78.

195 See, BOA, 99/4-2, 1338, C26, “Gouvernement Imperial Ottoman-Schneider & C^ie. Convention,” (30 April 1914).

196 SHM, Carton 1BB7/150, Bulletin de Informations Militaires, (Turquie), No. 292 (12 August 1924).

197 MAE, Serie E, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 77/I, no. 305, (3 December 1924): 54.

198 MAE, Serie E, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 77/I, no. 305, (5 June 1925): 69-73.

199 Metel, Türk Denizaltıcılık…, 27-28.

200 MAE, Serie E, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 77/I, no. 305, (2 June 1925): 73.

201 Björn Forsén and Annette Forsén, “German Secret Submarine Exports, in Girding for Battle: the Arms Trade in a Global Perspective, 1815-1940, (eds.) Donald J. Stoker Jr. and Jonathan A. Grant, (London: Preager, 2003): 116-117; also Herwig, “Innovation Ignored…”, 232

202 See, for instance, “The Goeben Again.” The Times, (26 May 1925). This reputation of the battlecruiser Yavuz was a direct result of the role attributed to her as SMS Goeben in the Otoman Empire’s “drift” into the First World War. Churchill himself wrote that “For the peoples of the Middle East SMS Goeben carried more slaughter, more misery and more ruin than has ever before borne within the compass of a ship.” Cited in Geoffrey Bennet, Naval Battles of the First World War, (London: Penguin Books, 2001): 14.

203 Daniel C. Villanueva, “Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi’s Pan-Europa as the Elusive ‘Object of Longing,’” Rocky Mountain Review 67, (Fall 2005): 70.

204 Richard N. Coudenhove-Kalergi, Pan-Europe (New York: Alfred.A. Knopf, 1926): 177-178.

205 MEA, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 616, no. 316, (27 April 1935): 49-51. Amiadversion defined a relationship which includes elements of both friendship and adversity.

206 PRO FO 371/19039, E1213/1213/44, (10 February 1935).

207 Mevlüt Çelebi, Milli Mücadele Döneminde Türk-İtalyan İlişkileri, (Ankara: Dışişleri Bakanlığı Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi, 1999); Fabio L. Grassi, L’Italia e la Questione Turca (1919-1923) (Turin: Silvio Zamaroni Editore, 1996). For Turkish translation of the book, see Fabio L. Grassi, İtalya ve Türk Sorunu 1919-1923 Kamuoyu ve Dış Politika, (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık, 2000).

208 H. James Burgwyn, Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period 1918-1940 (Connecticut: Praeger, 1997): 55.

209 J. B. Bosworth, Italy and the Wider World 1860-1960 (London: Routledge, 1996): 41.

210 Burgwyn, Italian Foreign Policy…, 24-27.

211 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Lausanne, (30 April 1923).

212 H. Stuart Hughes, “The Early Diplomacy of Italian Fascism, 1922-1932”, in Gordon A. Graig and Felix Gilbert (eds.), The Diplomats, 1919-1939 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981):

219.

213 Barclay, Glen St. J., (1973), The Rise and Fall of the New Roman Empire: Italy’s Bid for World Power, 1890-1943, (London: Sidgwick and Jackson): 132.

214 Mussolini’s seizure of Fiume was against the Rapallo Treaty that Conte Sforza signed with the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in 1920.

215 In 1922, the year Mussolini came to power Czechoslovakia, Romania, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes established the Little Entente with the support of France. Eliza

Campus, The Little Entente and the Balkan Alliance (Bucaresti: Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1978): 13-17.

216 Bosworth, Italy and the Wider World…, 44.

217 Martin Blinkhorn, Mussolini and Fascist Italy, (London: Routledge, 1994): 26.

218 Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, (New York: Vintage Books, 1983): 153.

219 ASMAE, Pacco 1704/7859, (29 August 1924) and Pacco 1714/7889, (21 January 1925).

220 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (14 April 1926).

221 MacGregor Knox, Common Destiny, Dictatorship, Foreign Policy and War in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000): 122.

222 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (19 April 1926).

223 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (23 April 1926).

224 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (23 April 1926).

225 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (23 April 1926).

226 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (27 October 1926).

227 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Sofia, (22 November 1926).

228 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (24 February 1927).

229 Stephen Josep Stilwell, Jr., Anglo-Turkish Relations in the Interwar Era, (New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, Ltd., 2003): 62.

230 Amidst the Mosul crisis, some scholars argue that London also kept in close contact with different ethnic groups in the region that were potential threats against the new Republic of Turkey. Mim Kemal Öke, Musul Meselesi Kronolojisi (1918-1926) (İstanbul: Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı, 1991): 112-140. Others state that there is no proof to show a direct link between the rebellions and London. Ömer Kürkçüoğlu, Türk-İngiliz İlişkileri 1919-1926 (Ankara: A.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayınları, 1978): 314.

231 Soysal claims Turkey preferred instead to receive five hundred thousand pound sterling upfront from Britain in lieu of annual shares. İsmail Soysal, Türkiye’nin Siyasal Andlaşmaları Vol. I. (1920-1945) (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1983), 307. In Uluğbay’s detailed study of Turkish budgets, it is established that Turkey actually received a total of 3.5 million pound sterling in annual instalments up until 1958. Hikmet Uluğbay, İmparatorluktan Cumhuriyete Petropolitik, (Ankara: Turkish Daily News, 1995): 263.

232ASMAE, Pacco 1714/7889, (21 January 1925).

233 Rıfat Uçarol, Siyasi Tarih (Ankara: Havacılık Basın ve Neşriyat Müdürlüğü, 1979): 426.

234 Ayın Tarihi, 55 (August 1928): 3889.

235ASMAE, Pacco 1714/7890, (10 April 1925).

236ASMAE, Pacco 1714/7890, (7 April 1925).

237 ASMAE, Pacco 4171/584, (9 June 1927).

238 ASMAE, Pacco 4171/584, (9 June 1927).

239 Haluk Ülman, “Türk Dış Politikasına Yön Veren Etkenler I,” A.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 26/3 (1968): 244.

240 ASMAE, Pacco 1719/7938, (19 February 1927).

241 Not until 1936 at Montreux, would the Straits question be resolved to the advantage of Turkey. Feridun Cemal Erkin, Les Relations Turco-Sovietiques et la Question des Détroits (Ankara: Başnur Matbaasi, 1968): 62-65 and Seha L. Meray, Lozan Barış Konferansı, Tutanaklar-Belgeler, Vol. 1 (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 1993): 131-180.

242 See, for instance, Ayın Tarihi, 48 (April 1928): 3336.

243 PRO FO 371/ 13085, E 3218/43/44, (25 June 1928).

244 Milliyet, (28 June 1926).

245 Alan Cassels, Mussolini’s Early Diplomacy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970): 328.

246 According to Mango, Mustafa Kemal’s diplomatic tactic was as ever to split the Allied ranks. A compromise in Mosul would satisfy Britain. It would then be easier to resist the economic demands of the French and the Italians. Andrew Mango, Atatürk (London: John Murray, 1999): 378.

247 C. J. Lowe, and F. Marzari, Italian Foreign Policy, 1870-1940, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975):190-191.

248 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Rome, (6 January 1928).

249 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (18 July 1927).

250 Lowe and Marzari, Italian Foreign Policy…, 143.

251 Nettuno would have guaranteed the rights of Italians living in Dalmatia. Burgwyn, Italian Foreign Policy…, 42.

252 Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini (New York: Vintage Books, 1983):,151-158.

253 Adamwaith, p. 136

254 O’Connor, Perilous Equilibrium…, 55.

255 O’Connor, Perilous Equilibrium…, 57.

256 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (25 April 1928).

257 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (25 April 1928).

258 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (6 June 1928).

259 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Rome, (13 December 1928).

260 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (6 June 1928,).

261 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Rome, (25 September 1928).

262 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Rome, (25 September 1928).

263 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (1 January 1929).

264 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Rome, (3 May 1929).

265 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Rome, (3 May 1929).

266 NARA RG 59, M530, R 5, Constantinople, (6 June 1928).

267 Bischoff, Ankara: Türkiye’deki…., 286.

268 The text of the Government decree talks of three submarines that had been sold off without providing any details on them. It is tempting to assume that they might part of the large Ottoman order of April 1914, as the transaction authorized was to be undertaken by an agent of the Republic of Turkey in London. BCA, 09.25.11, (19 May 1340 [1923]).

269 ASMAE, Pacco 1727/7975, Turchia 1927 (17 December 1928).

270 PRO FO 371/13085, E252/43/44 (5 and 12 January 1928).

271 Law No. 1244, Düstur, Series III (1175-1352), Vol. IX (1927-1928): 130.

272 Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanması, 46-47.

273 PRO FO371/13081, E5864/17/44 (25 November 1928).

274 On French-Italian naval rivalry in the Mediterranean see Paul G. Halpern, “French and Italian Naval Policy in the Mediterranean,” in John B. Hattendorf (ed.) Naval Strategy and Policy in the Mediterranean: Past, Present and Future (London: Frank Cass, 2000): 78-106.

275 ASMAE, Pacco 1727/7975, Turchia 1928 (3 December 1928).

276 ASMAE, Pacco 1727/7988, Turchia 1926, Maroni to Navy Headquarters, (6 December 1926).

277 ASMAE, Pacco 1727/7988, Turchia 1926, Orsini to Foreign Ministry, (31 December 1926).

278 ASMAE, Pacco 1720/17271,Turchia 1928, Mussolini to Italian Embassy (Turkey) and

Mussolini to Ministry of Marine, (23 November 1928).

279 ASMAE, Pacco 17271/7975, Turchia 1928, Maroni to Navy Headquarters, (3 December. 1928).

280 For the foreign military influence in the Ottoman Empire, see C.B. Rooney, ‘The

International Significance of the British Naval Mission to the Ottoman Empire,

1908–1914’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.34, No.1 (January 1998); J. Wallach, Bir Askeri

Yardımın Anatomisi: Türkiye’de Prusya-Alman Askeri Heyetleri, 1835–1919, F.

Çeliker (trans.), (Ankara: Genel Kurmay Basımevi, 1985).

281 ASMAE, Pacco 1720/7939,Turchia 1927, Maroni to Navy Headquarters, (3 June 1927)

282 Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy…, 114–23.

283 ASMAE, Pacco 1727/7948, Turchia 1927, Ministry of National Economy to Ministry of

Foreign Affairs, (21 July 1927).

284 ASMAE, Pacco 1727/7948, Turchia 1927, Maroni to Navy Headquarters, (15 August 1927).

285 PRO FO 371/13817, E1855/189/44, Department of Overseas Trade Memorandum, (15

April 1929).

286 Libia served with the Italian Navy until 1938. Langensiepen and Güleryüz, The

Ottoman Navy…, 65.

287 Ayın Tarihi 12 (1927): 1945.

288 See Soysal, Türkiye’nin Siyasal Andlaşmaları I…, 105–6.

289 Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanması…, 35–6.

290 ASMAE, Pacco 17271/7975, Turchia 1928, Orsini to Foreign Ministry, (4 December 1928).

291 ASMAE, Pacco 17271/.7975, Turchia 1928, Orsini to Foreign Ministry, (9 December 1928).

292 ASMAE, Pacco 17271/.7975, Turchia 1928, Maroni to Navy Headquarters, (17 December 1928). Ironically, one of these officers did not rate Italian shipbuilding very highly. See K. Münir, Avrupaya Tetkik için Gönderilen Dz. Zabitlerinin Raporları –3 (Istanbul: Deniz Matbaası, 1929).

293 ‘Bahri Siparişleri İtalyanlar Aldılar’, Cumhuriyet, (24 May 1929). Basil Zaharoff was born

an Ottoman subject around 1850. He figured as a prominent arms salesman. He sold arms

to both Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zaharoff symbolized the archetypal ‘merchant of

death’ for his lack of morals. He was later portrayed as ‘a figure of historical importance;

for he was not merely a master of salesmanship and bribery, but an operator who

understood the connections between arms and diplomacy, between arms and intelligence,

and who could serve as both salesman and spy’. A. Sampson, The Arms Bazaar: The

Companies, the Dealers, the Bribes, from Vickers to Lockheed (London: Hodder and

Stoughton, 1977): 49.

294 ASMAE, Pacco 1731/8003, Turchia 1929, Telegram, (25 May 1929).

295 ‘Yeni Gemilerimiz’, Cumhuriyet, (2 June 1929). The Evening News claimed ‘portentous

rumbling in the mountain spread over several years has brought a forward a very small

mouse’. ‘Turks Order More Warships’, Evening News, (29 May 1929), newspaper cutting in

the Venizelos Archives, Athens, Folder 173/53, 1929, VI–VII.

296 ASMAE, Pacco 1728/2319, Turchia 1929, Orisini to Foreign Ministry, (3 June 1929).

297 Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanması…, Büyüktuğrul himself had

training with the Italian Navy between 1929–30. For his impressions, Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanmasının Kuruluşu..., xx-xx.

298 ‘Italy to Develop Turkey’s Fleet’, Morning Post, (6 June 1929), newspaper cutting in the

Venizelos Archives, Athens, Folder 173/53, 1929, VI–VII.

299 ‘İki İtalyan Torpidosu Geldi’, Cumhuriyet, (4 June 1929); ‘İki İtalyan Torpidosu Daha

Geldi’, Cumhuriyet, (5 June 1929).

300 ‘Dün İtalyan Tayyareleri Geldiler ve Hararetle Karşılandılar, Cumhuriyet, (7 June 1929). On Italo Balbo and his aviation exploits, see R. Barbalenardo, ‘The Odyssey of Italo Balbo’,

Airpower, 30/4 (July 2000); B. Taylor, Fascist Eagle: Italy’s Air Marshal Italo

Balbo (Missoula, MT: Pictorial Histories, 1996).

301 ‘Roma Sefirimizin Beyanatı: Talebelerimiz Çok İyi Çalışıyor’, Cumhuriyet, (8 June 1929).

302 Examples of Turkish admiration of Fascism’s achievements in organizing the society may be found in Falih Rıfkı Atay, Faşist Roma, Kemalist Tiran ve Kaybolmuş Makidonya

(Ankara: Hakimiyeti Milliye Matbaası, 1931): 5–53; and Moskova–Roma (Istanbul:

Muallim Ahmet Halit Kitaphanesi, 1932): 73–109.

303 ‘Matbuat Cemiyeti İtalyan Gazetecileri Şerefine Bir Ziyafet Verdi’, Cumhuriyet, (16 June

1929).

304 J. Rohwer, ‘Soviet Naval Strategies and Building Programs: 1922–1941’, in Acta XIXth

International Colloquium of Military History, Istanbul, Turkey (Ankara: ATASE, 1993):.425.

305 İsmet İnönü, Defterler (1919-1973), Vol. I, Ahmet Demirel (ed.), (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2001): 155.

306 ‘Turkish Naval Plans’, Times, (29 May 1929), newspaper cutting in the Venizelos Archives,

Athens, Folder 173/53, 1929, VI–VII.

307 The cruiser Salamis was ordered by Greece in 1913. It could never be completed after the

First World War broke out. In 1927, the shipbuilder Vulcan demanded compensation for

building costs from the Greek government. Greece’s reluctance led to a dispute which was

subsequently submitted to arbitration. Norwegian Admiral Scott Hansen suggested

Greece’s purchase of the cruiser with minimum armaments installed to settle the issue.

Athens did not consider this suggestion until May 1929. ‘Yunanlılar Salamisi Alırlarsa’,

Cumhuriyet, (15 June 1929). “Greek Battle Cruiser Salamis: Pre-War Contract Binding,” The Times, (12 December 1925); “The Salamis Case: Neutral Admiral’s Report,” The Times, (15 June 1928).

308 PRO FO 371/13656 C4148/752/19, Foreign Office Minute, (11 June 1929); PRO FO

371/13648 C4304/14/19, Lorraine to Foreign Office, (17 June 1929).

309 ‘The Greek Navy: Two More Destroyers to be Ordered, Daily Telegraph; ‘Greece to Have

Two New Warships’, Manchester Guardian, (29 May 1929), newspaper cuttings in the

Venizelos Archives, Athens, Folder 173/53, 1929, VI–VII.

310 The press in both countries featured extensive reports that exacerbated public fears for

failure to keep up with the other side. The Greek press accused Turkey of preparing to take

over several Greek islands in the Aegean once the Yavuz was recommissioned. For a

summary of Greek press coverage see PRO FO 371/13656 C7131/752/19, British Legation

(Athens) to Henderson, (12 September 1929). For Turkish response in press, see ‘Bahri

Siparişlerimiz Harp İçin Değil, Harbe Mani Olmak İçindir’, Cumhuriyet, (13 June 1929); A.

Daver, ‘Sahte Bir Telaş”’, Cumhuriyet, (15 June 1929).

311 PRO FO 371/ 13648 C6078/14/19, Yarrow and Company Limited to Foreign Office, (7

August 1929).

312 PRO FO 371/13648 C7796/14/19, British Legation (Athens) to Henderson, (7 October 1929).

313 Rimanelli, Italy Between Europe and the Mediterranean…, 528.

314 ‘Deniz Müsteşarı İtalya’dan Geldi’, Cumhuriyet, (19 March 1930); PRO FO 371/14567

E1017/206/44, Rendel (Foreign Office) to Admiralty, (27 February 1930).

315 Fanning, Peace and Disarmament…, 106–32.

316 ‘Türkiye–İtalya’, Cumhuriyet, 26 March 1930.

317 ‘Deniz Haberleri’, Deniz Mecmuası, Vol.43, No.319 (Jan. 1931), p.2.

318 PRO FO 371/14421, C4368/1906/22, Ramsey to Henderson, 27 May 1930.

319 PRO FO 371/14421, C7776/1382/22, Foreign Office Memorandum, 7 Oct. 1930.

320 Krause, Arms and the State, p.74.

321 PRO FO 371/14421, C8541/1382/22, British Naval Mission in Athens to Naval

Intelligence, (13 October 1930).

322 PRO FO 371/14567, E1242/206/44, Clerk to Henderson, (28 February 1930).

323 See for instance, PRO FO 371/13085, E252/43/44, Memorandum by M.H.S. MacDonald,

(5 January 1928); ASD Pacco 1732/8022, Turchia 1930, Secchi to Navy Headquarters (Rome), (15 August 1930).

324 For a different interpretation of the link between Turkish naval modernization and

Turkish–Greek negotiations, see Mango, Atatürk…,486.

325 PRO FO 371/14567, E1792/206/44, Graham to Henderson, (7 April 1930).

326 PRO FO 371/14351, C9143/3519/62, Clerk to Henderson, (8 December 1930).

327 Soysal, Türkiye’nin Siyasal, p.385. The French Parliament ratified the Treaty

three years later in 1933.

328 TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Vol.25, Term 3, Session 3, Meeting 28 (12 February 1931): 35–7.

329 ASMAE Pacco 1732/8022, Turchia 1930, Aloisi to Foreign Ministry (Rome), (28 July 1930).

330 Marie-Renée Mouton, “La Société des Nations et le Plan Briand”, in Le Plan Briand d’Union Fédérale Européenne, (Bern: Peter Lang, 1998): 237.

331 For Briand’s memorandum and replies to it, see, League of Nations, Documents relating to the Organisation of a System of European Federal Union, A.46.1930. VII, (Geneva, 15 September 1930).

332 The British opposed Briand’s European Union project as predicted by most observers. In general, British observers equated France with Poincaré rather than Briand who seemed a tragic figure, struggling against the atavistic forces to which Poincaré allegedly gave expression. Robert W. D. Boyce, “The Briand and the Crisis of British Liberalism,” in Le Plan Briand d’Union Fédérale Européenne, Antoine Fleury (ed.), (Bern: Peter Lang, 1998): 132.

333 Zeki Mesut [Alsan],“Poincaré’nin İstifası,” Milliyet, (3 August 1929).

334 “Avrupa Devleti,” Ayın Tarihi 22-23/75-78 (June-September 1930): 6440.

335 Mahmut, “Milletlerin İttihadı” Milliyet, (29 September 1929).

336 Tevfik Rüştü Aras, Atatürk’ün Dış Politikası, (İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2003), 75-76.

337 Aras, Atatürk’ün Dış…, 76.

338 See League of Nations, Documents relating to…, 23, 32, 37, 43 and 61.

339 Petricioli argues that Italy was fighting against French hegemony in Europe either by a rapprochement with Britain (as in the naval disarmament conference), or by forming an entente with Berlin or by drawing new forces such as Turkey and the Soviet Union into the European system. Marta Petricioli, “Dino Grandi et la Réponse Italienne”, in Le Plan Briand d’Union…, 331-346. Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen believed that Italy had pressed for an invitation to Turkey and the Soviet Union as a means of killing the scheme (possibly discrediting the League). Maarten L. Pereboom, Democracies at the Turning Point, Britain, France and the End of the Postwar Order, 1928-1933, (NY: Peter Lang, 1995):167.

340 BCA, 254.712.20, (3 August 1930).

341 See Pierre Milza, Mussolini, (Paris: Fayard, 1999): 633.

342 Muharrem Feyzi [Togay], “Avrupa Birliği,” Cumhuriyet, (14 June 1930).

343 There was a series of article on the topic in Cumhuriyet and Hakimiyeti Milliye in 1930 and 1931.

344 Zeki Mesut [Alsan], “Avrupa”nın Manası” Hakimiyeti Milliye, (4 April 1931).

345 ASMAE, Pacco 1732/8021, (17 November 1930).

346 Domna Dontas, “La Grece et la Politique de Reconciliation de Briand”, in Le Plan Briand…, 519.

347 Dontas, “La Grece et la Politique…,” 519.

348 Dilek Barlas and Serhat Güvenç, “To Build a Navy with the Help of Adversary: Italian-Turkish Naval Arms Trade, 1929-1932,” Middle Eastern Studies 38(4), (October 2002): 158.

349 MAE, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 609, No. 234, (25 August 1930) and No. 111, (26 November 1930). For the neutrality and friendship treaties concluded in 1928 and 1930 with Italy and Greece respectively, see Soysal, Türkiye’nin Siyasal I…, 333-339 and 391-396.

350 ASMAE, Pacco 1732/8021, (8 September 1930).

351 For Turkish press coverage see, Ayın Tarihi 77 (August 1930): 6430-6441.

352 League of Nations, Commission of Enquiry for European Union, Minutes of the Second Session of the Commission, C.144.M45. 1931. VII, (Geneva, 16 to 21 January 1931), 22.

353 Titulescu also said that Briand made a mistake in subordinating economics to politics. Dan Berindei, “La Roumanie et le Plan Briand” in Le Plan Briand..., 470.

354 Petricioli, “Dino Grandi et la…,” 341-324.

355 League of Nations, Minutes of the Second Session of the Commission…, 40 and 81. Although reserved about the Commission’s expansion, Denmark insisted on the inclusion of Iceland among the European states to be invited. League of Nations, Minutes of the Second Session of the Commission…, 24.

356 MAE, 1918-1940, Série Y Internationale, Vol. 642, No. 32/35, (20 January 1931): 32.

357 MAE, 1918-1940, Série Y Internationale, Vol. 642, No. 111/112, (29 January 1931): 194

358 Petriocioli, “Dino Grandi et la…,” 339-340.

359 Lowe and Marzari, Italian Foreign Policy…, 230.

360 See, League of Nations, Commission of Enquiry for European Union, Minutes of the Fourth Session of the Commission, C.681.M.287, 1931. VII (Geneva, September 3rd to 5th, 1931): 21.

361 See Yücel Güçlü, “Turkey’s Entrance into the League of Nations, Middle Eastern Studies 39(1), (January 2003), pp. 186-206.

362 BCA, 222.498.4, Foreign Minister Aras to Prime Minister İnönü, (5 August 1932).

363 Ravenhill writes that the creativity of middle powers is directed towards the construction of coalitions of “like-minded” states. John Ravenhill, “Cycles of Middle Power Activism: Constraint and Choice in Australian and Canadian Foreign Policies”, Australian Journal of International Affairs, 52/3 (1998): 312.

364 See Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy…

365 Selim Deringil, “Dış Politikada Süreklilik Sorunsalı: II. Abdülhamit ve İsmet İnönü” Toplum ve Bilim, 28 (Winter 1985): 95-96.

366 For a long memorandum by the French naval attaché on the Yavuz’s reconditioning by Penhoët, see MAE, Serié E, Levant/Turquie, Vol. 599, Carton 305, “Refection du ‘Yavuz’ par la Société des Chantier et Atèliers de Saint-Nazaire (Penhoët) a Guldjick-Golfe d’Ismidt’ (12 March 1930). SHM, Carton 1BB2/89, Bulletin de Rensignements, No. 222 (June 1930): 71-73. “Yavuz’un Atış Tecrübeleri,” Cumhuriyet (11 August 1930).

367 PRO FO 371/14567, E6865/206/44 (18 December 1930).

368 SHM, Carton 1BB2/97, Bulletin de Rensignements, No. 225 (November 1931): 72-73.

369 “Hücumbotlarımız Fennin En Son Tekamülatına Göre İnşa Edilmişlerdir,” Yenigün (8 September 1931).

370 For detailed engineering notes and calculations related to the stability problems, see Ata Nutku, “Ansaldo Destoyerleri,” [The Ansaldo destroyers] (Unpublished manuscript), the Ata Nutku Collection, Turkish Naval Academy Library, Tuzla, İstanbul.

371 ‘Tahtelbahirlerimize Dün Sancak Çekildi,” Cumhuriyet (7 November 1931).

372 ‘Zafer ve Tınaztepe,” Cumhuriyet (6 June 1932).

373 Lambert, Soviet Disarmament Policy…, 56.

374 Lambert, Soviet Disarmament Policy…,, 70-75.

375 Lambert, Soviet Disarmament Policy…,, 75.

376 Lambert, Soviet Disarmament Policy…,, 65.

377 See Hatzivassiliou, “The 1930 Greek-Turkish Naval…,”89-111.

378 Quoted in Feroz Ahmad, “The Historical Background of Turkey’s Foreign Policy,” in the Future of Turkish Foreign Policy, (eds.) Lenore G. Martin and Dimitris Kerides, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2004): 18.

379 See, for instance, Cemal Tukin, Bugünkü Avrupa Devletler Manzumesinin Doğuşu ve Türkiye’nin Bu Manzumeye Duhulü, Konferanslar Seri: 1- Kitap 18, (Ankara: Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Yayını, 1938). Georges-Henri Soutou, “Was there a European Order in the Twentieth Century? From the Concert of Europe to the End of the Cold War, Contemporary European History 9/3, (August 2000): 337-338

380 Despite persistent Turkish efforts, participation in various pan-European schemes did not necessarily bring recognition of Turkey’s European identity, to the frustration of Turkish diplomats and intellectuals. Prominent Turkish journalist, Falih Rıfkı Atay who covered the London Conference in 1933 for Cumhuriyet, argued that Turkey should reconsider its claim rather than assert its being a European country each time Turkey was referred to as an Asian country in meetings or in the press, as The Times did during the Conference. Falih Rıfkı [Atay], Londra Konferansı Mektupları, (Ankara: Hakimiyeti Milliye Matbaası, 1933): 48.

381 BCA, 254.712.20, (3 August 1930).

382 League of Nations, Minutes of the Second Session…, 22.

383 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Pan-Europe…, 177-78.

384 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Europa Erwacht!, (Zurich: Paneuropa-Verlag, 1934), 140.

385 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Europa Erwacht!...

386 Coundehove-Kalergi, Europa Erwacht!..., 21.

387 Peter Bugge, “The Nation Supreme: the Idea of Europe 1914-1945” in Kevin Wilson and Jan van der. Dussen (eds.), The History of the Idea of Europe, (London: Routledge, 1995): 99-101.

388 Coundehove-Kalergi, Europa Erwacht!..., 21.

389 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Crusade for Pan-Europe…, 280

390 While, Coudenhove-Kalergi changed his mind about Turkey and its place in political Europe, it is difficult to argue that he represented the majority opinion. For instance, another Austrian, who served in Turkey as a diplomat in the early 1930s, regarded Turkey as an Asian country and the Turks as Asiatic people. Norbert von Biscoff in his book on Turkey, however, could not help but admire the Turkish civilizational transformation like Coudenhove-Kalergi. This transformation turned Turkey into a model for other Asiatic or non-Western societies to emulate. He went further and suggested a leadership role for Turkey for Iran and Afghanistan both of which seemed to have embarked on a similar modernization path. Bischoff, Ankara: Türkiye’deki Yeni…, 290-291.

391 Coundehove-Kalergi, Europa Erwacht!..., 126-127

392 Coundehove-Kalergi, Europa Erwacht!..., 21.

393 Coundehove-Kalergi, Europa Erwacht!..., 156.

394 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Crusade for Pan-Europe…, 280.

395 Peter M. R. Stirk, A History of European Integration since 1914, (London: Continuum, 2001): 8.

396 MEA, Série Levant, Sous-Série Turquie, Vol. 611, no. 252, (5 October 1933).

397 ASMAE, Busta 3/6, Turchia 1931, Cantieri Del Tirreno to Ministry of National Defence

(Ankara), (21 October 1931).

398 ASMAE, Busta 6/8, Turchia 1932, Cantieri Reuniti Dell’ Adriatico to Foreign Ministry

(Rome), (5 August 1932).

399 ASMAE, Busta 6/8, Turchia 1931, Koch to Foreign Ministry, (30 October 1932).

400 PRO FO 371/19089, E6237/55/44, Turkish Financial Situation and Financial Policy, (1 December 1932).

401 ASMAE, Busta 6/8, Turchia 1932, Director-General, Office 1 to Undersecretary of Foreign Ministry (Rome), (14 December 1932.

402 Sermet Fuat, “Donanmamız…,” 411-412.

403 ASMAE, Busta 6/48, Turchia 1933, (18 and 29 March 1933).

404 SHM, Carton 1BB7/169 Compte Rendu De Rensignements (Turquie) No. 5, (16 April 1934).

405 See also, Yücel Güçlü, “Turkey’s Entrance into the League of Nations,” Middle Eastern Studies 39(1), (January 2003): 186-206.

406 Manley O. Hudson, “Admission of Turkey to Membership in the League of Nations,” American Journal of International Law, 26(4), (October 1932): 814

407 The League of Nations, Verbatim Record of the Thirteen Ordinary Session of the Assembly, Pleanary Sessions (26 September 1932): 1-7.

408 For Turkish press coverage of the issue, see Ayın Tarihi 10, (October 1934), 181-183 and 218-228.

409 Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy…, 137.

410 According to Stavrianos, the Balkan Entente of 1934 represented a third Balkan Alliance system. The first two attempts featured strong anti-Ottoman elements. L.S. Stavrianos, Balkan Federation: A History of the Movement Toward Balkan Unity in Modern Times, (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1964): 224-258

411 For instance, King Alexander of Yugoslavia is also considered “the primary architect of the [Balkan] pact.” Bogdan Raditsa, “Venizelos and the Struggle around the Balkan Pact,” Balkan Studies, 6/1,(1965): 120.

412 O’Connor, Force and Diplomacy…, 49-50.

413 James Barros, Britain, Greece and the Politics of Sanctions, Ethiopia, 1935-36, (London: Royal Historical Society, 1982): 2).

414 Cooper, Higgot and Nossal, Relocating Middle Powers…,19.

415As a matter of fact, the new Yugoslav Minister to Sofia left for Belgrade immediately after the visit of Aras. NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 4, Sofia, (10 December 1930)

416Polychroniadis was Minister to Belgrade before his transfer to Ankara and instrumental in solving the Greco-Serbian differences, which arose over the free zone of Salonica after the fall of Pangalos. NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL I, Istanbul, (23 February 1932).

417 NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL I, Istanbul, (23 February 1932).

418 Ileana Tilea (ed.), Envoy Extraordinary, Memoirs of a Romanian Diplomat, Viorel Virgil Tilea (London: Haggerston Press, 1998): 136-137.

419 Eugene Boia, Romania’s Diplomatic Relations with Yugoslavia in the Interwar Period, 1919-1941 (Boulder: East European Monographes, 1993): 167.

420 NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 4, Sofia, (30 May 1933).

421 NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 4, Sofia, (29 September 1933).

422 On 27 November 1933 the Treaty was signed between the two countries.

423 NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 4, Sofia, (29 September 1933).

424 Raoul V. Bossy, Recollections of a Romanian Diplomat 1918-1969, Diaries and Memoirs of Raoul V. Bossy, Vol. I, G. H. Bossy and M. A. Bossy (eds. and trans.), (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2003): 138

425 Dov B. Lungu, Romania and the Great Powers 1933-1940 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989): 30-31

426 NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 1, Istanbul, (25 August 1933).

427 NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 1, Istanbul, (19 January 1934).

428 Lungu, Romania and the Great Powers …, 32-33. If Italy attacked Yugoslavia through Albania, irrespective of Bulgaria’s attitude, the other three states were bound to come to Yugoslavia’s assistance.

429 PRO FO 371/16801, C1237/175/22, Concerning Turkey, according to the British Archives, French ambassador in Rome M. de Jouvenal had recognized the priority of the Italian claim to penetrate Anatolia in the event of a break-up of Turkey on the demise of M. Kemal. But it also opined that any Italian penetration into Anatolia was like dividing the lion’s skin before the animal was dead and could hardly be regarded as a serious proposition.

430 ASMAE, Busta 7, Rapporti Politici, 1933/1. However, Mussolini was willing to form a more limited alliance system with Turkey and Greece.

431 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri A. IV-6, D. 54, F. 85-4.

432 ASMAE, Busta 7-Turchia 1933, (18 June 1933).

433 ASMAE, Busta 7-Turchia 1933, (11 July 1933). According to Italian archival documents, Turkey would do everything possible to preclude the formation of any Slavic bloc. If such a bloc were realized, Ankara would come to a special agreement with the Soviet Union, Italy, Austria and Hungary. ASMAE, Busta 7/5-Turchia 1933, (16 September 1933). In fact, Yugoslavia could not convince Bulgaria to cooperate within the Little Entente as France expected.

434 These three countries agreed to bring up the strength of their armies to the same level. Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri A. IV-6, D. 54, F. 85-15.

435 ASMAE, Busta 7-Turchia 1933, (19 October 1933). According to these treaties, they would not be engaged in any economic and political agreement against each other. In fact, Rome had favoured Turkey’s signing neutrality treaties with Bulgaria in 1929 and with Greece in 1930.

436 ASMAE, Busta 11/1 Turchia, (26 May 1934).

437 For more details, see Dilek Barlas “Friends or Foes: Diplomatic Relations between Italy and Turkey, 1923-1936,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, (May 2004).

438ASMAE, Busta 11/2 Turchia, (21 May 1934)

439 ASMAE, Busta 11/1, (26 April 1934) and (26 May 1934).

440 The Balkan Entente did not include Bulgaria as Italy expected, but ended up with the inclusion of Yugoslavia in the entente. Undersecretary in Italian Foreign Ministry Fulvio Suvich pointed out that Ankara rejected the demands of Romania and Yugoslavia, which sought that the Entente take under guarantee their boundaries with Italy and Hungary. ASMAE, Busta 11/2 Turchia, 29 December 1933. According to some Italian officials, Turkey and Greece had not been instrumental in the formation of the entente and these two countries seemed to be pushed into it by Yugoslavia.

441ASMAE, Busta 11/1 Turchia, (26 May 1934).

442 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A. IV-6, D. 54, F. 63-10.

443 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A.IV-16-b, D. 65, F.20-18. In his visit to the British Embassy, Venizelos talked about a possibility of an armed dispute not only between Italy and Yugoslavia but also between Italy and Turkey and concluded that Greece had not to be involved in any of these disputes.

444 Soysal,Türkiye’nin Siyasal Andlaşmaları I…, 450.

445 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A.IV-16-b, D. 65, F. 20-10.

446 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A. IV-6, D. 54-1, F. 79

447 Tevfik Rüştü Aras, Atatürk’ün Dış Politikası, (İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2003): 139.

448 The only great power Turkey maintained good relations after the War of Independence was the Soviet Union. Ankara had been careful to avoid any engagements that might have alienated its neighbour in the North. However, Moscow did seem to approve of Turkey’s championing Balkan cooperation. See T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı, Türk Dış Politikasında 50 Yıl: Cumhuriyetin İlk On Yılı ve Balkan Paktı (1923-1934), (Ankara: Dışişleri Bakanlığı, 1974), 335-347

449 Mustafa Aydın, “Determinants of Turkish Foreign Policy: Historical Framework and Traditional Inputs” Middle Eastern Studies, 35, 4 (October 1999): 157-167.

450 Deringil, “Dış Politikada Süreklilik…,” 94.

451 Boia, Romania’s Diplomatic Relations…, 192.

452 Boia, Romania’s Diplomatic Relations…, 192. Romania and Yugoslavia ratified it on 16 June.

453 Bossy, Recollections of a Romanian Diplomat…, 144. Lungu added that the Romanians were unaware of the fact that the reservations made by Turkey about their involvement in an anti-Soviet war were inspired by Moscow and concerned a possible armed conflict between the Soviet Union and Romania for the possession of Bessarabia. Lungu, Romania and the Great Powers …,, 33

454 NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 4, Bucharest, (12 May 1934).

455 NARA RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 4, Bucharest, (12 May 1934).

456 RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 1, Ankara, (1 November 1934).

457 Lowe and Marzari, Italian Foreign Policy…, 220.

458 Vaisse, “Security and Disarmament…,” 199-200.

459 Rolf Ahmann, “’Localization of Conflicts’ or ‘Indivisibility of Peace’: The German and Soviet Approaches towards Collective Security and East Central Europe, 1925-1939,” in The Quest for Stability: Problems of West European Security, 1918-1957, ed. by Ahmann, R., A. M. Birke, M. Howard, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993): 224).

460 Armando Borghi, Mussolini, Red and Black, (NY: Haskell House Publishers, 1974): 205.

461 Mussolini defined the revisionist countries such as Italy and Germany as the “have-not” nations.

462 Meir Michaelis, “Italy’s Mediterranean Strategy in the Mediterranean, 1935-1939”, in M. J. Cohen and M. Kolinsky (eds.), Britain and the Middle East in the 1930s (London: MacMillan, 1992): 47.

463 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A.IV-6, D. 54, F. 64-3.

464 ASMAE, Busta 11/1 Turchia, (21 April 1934).

465 ASMAE, Busta 11/1 Turchia, (26 May 1934).

466 Ayın Tarihi 6 (June 1934): 299

467 ASMAE, Busta 11/2 Turchia, (18 May 1934).

468 Ayın Tarihi, 7 (May 1934): 279-81. Ankara was also suspicious about the British support of the Greek population in the islands. In other words, the islands in the Aegean could easily become a hotbed of rivalry between Britain and Italy and the population on the islands could be manipulated to this end. Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A. IV-16-b, D. 65, F. 3-(302-302).

469 PRO FO 371/18432, R 7064/471/22, f. 341-342

470 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A. IV-6, d. 54-1, F.90.

471 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A. IV-6, d. 54-1, F.90.

472 PRO FO 371/18432, R 7064/471/22, f. 341-342

473 PRO FO 371/17964, E 3073/2260/44, f. 365

474 Holbraad argued that this was a typical characteristic of a middle power. Holbraad, Middle Powers…, 69.

475 Hasan Pulur (ed.), Muhafızı Atatürk’ü Anlatıyor: Emekli General İsmail Hakkı Tekçe’nin Anıları, (İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2000): 56-57.

476 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, AIV-18b, D-74-2, F1-194 (10 July 1934).

477 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, AIV-18b, D-74-2, F1-194 (10 July 1934).

478 RG 59 Microcopy T1245 ROLL 6, Athens, (28 January 1935).

479 Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, Zoraki Diplomat, (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1984): 88-89.

480 Büyüktuğrul served with Italian Navy as a “trainee” for almost two years from 1931 to 1933. For his views, see Büyüktuğrul, Cumhuriyet Donanmasının Kuruluşu I…, 43-315.

481 PRO FO 371 19039 E1213/1213/44 (10 February 1935).

482 Interview with Şemsettin Bargut, Captain (Ret.), Turkish navy, (13 April 2001), Ankara.

483 BCA 238.605.2 (7 October 1934),.

484 Ljudmil Spasov, “Les Projets d’un Pacte Méditerranéen et l’Entente Balkanique 1934-1937”, Etudes Balkaniques 2 (1987): 7

485MAE, 1918-1940, Série Y Internationale, Vol. 571, c. 63, D. 7, no. 104, (18 February 1930).

486 MAE, Levant 1918-1940, Turquie, Vol. 624, Directeur Politique, (28 November 1934).

487 Cumhuriyet, (12 June 1934).

488 Cumhuriyet, (24 June 1934).

489 Cumhuriyet, (29 June 1934).

490 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Arşivleri, A. IV-6, D. 54-1, F.90

491 Ayın Tarihi 8 (June 1934): 183-184.

492 Cumhuriyet, (13 July 1934) and Milliyet