Federal political system resolve the problem of premature dissolutions of government in

5.3 Government Structure – The Judiciary 
The judicial system and its functioning in any polity varies with respect to its 
political system. 
5.3.1 The USA 
There was, however, no provision for a judicature under the Articles of 
Confederation in the USA.
362
At the Philadelphia Convention, the need for a central 
judiciary was ascertained not only to address the issues of confederation but also 
to provide rulings regarding conflicting decisions between states.
363
Consequently, 
the subsequent US constitution provided that 'The judicial power of the United 
362
Francis Newton Thorpe, 'History of the American People' (1901) World Constitutions Illustrated 
56. 
363
ibid. 

---

89 
States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the 
Congress may from time to time ordain and establish'.
364
The Supreme Court is created by the constitution, whereas other all other federal 
courts are created by Congress.
365
The Supreme Court plays a very significant role 
in the US judicial system. All the judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the 
President himself, upon the advice or recommendation of the Senate.
366
The 
appointment of judges (judiciary) are by the president (executive) with the 
involvement of Senate (legislature). This process should not be seen as 
circumventing the separation of powers, for two reasons. First, Supreme Court 
judges are appointed for life and cannot be removed by either executive or 
legislature save for impeachment. Second, the President can only appoint judges on 
the advice and recommendations of the Senate which is likely to be comprised of a 
mixture of all parties, unlike the parliamentary house in Pakistan.
367
If the Senate 
wishes to oppose any nomination by the president they can and have done. For 
example, President Obama nominated Merrick Garland for Associate Justice of 
Supreme Court, whom the Senate successfully opposed by holding their vote for 
293 days until the presidential term had expired.
368
Whilst the Supreme Court of the USA has several judicial functions, in the context 
of this thesis, the significant role of the Supreme Court is that of custodian of the 
constitution and protector of the federation and of democracy. 
The Supreme Court is the guardian of the US Constitution because, by way of 
judicial review, it can nullify any unconstitutional laws passed by the Congress or 
by executive order by the President. The case of Marbury v Madison
369
is a good 
example that demonstrates the power of judicial review. The facts of this case have 
some similarity with the previous example of Obama nominating Merrick Garland 
for Supreme Court near the end of his presidential term except that in this case 
President John Adams had already appointed William Marbury as Justice of the 
Peace for the District of Columbia. When President Jefferson succeeded, he ordered 
364
US Constitution Article III. 
365
ibid. 
366
ibid. 
367
US Constitution Article II, see also Epstein L and Posner EA, ‘Supreme Court Justices’ Loyalty to 
the President’ (2016) 45 The Journal of Legal Studies 401. 
368
J Fishkin and DE Pozen, 'Asymmetric Constitutional Hardball' (2018) 118(3) Columbia Law 
Review 915. 
369
5 US 137 (1803). 

---

90 
his secretary of state not to finalize the appointment of Marbury. The Supreme 
Court nullified the presidential order of Adams and by extension ruled against 
Marbury. 
The judicial review power vested in the US political system has not only guarded 
the constitution from being abused but also provided a substantial shield against 
any despotic intention of the executive or the military,
370
unlike in the case of 
Pakistan, where unconstitutional acts have been ratified by the Supreme Court. The 
US Supreme Court has played an important role and has delivered landmark 
judgments to preserve the integrity of the union. 
For example, in the case of McCulloch v Maryland, two important constitutional law 
principles were introduced: firstly, the doctrine of implied powers to Congress for 
implementing the Constitution's express powers and secondly that a state's action 
may not hinder valid constitutional exercises of power.
371
Whilst the constitution 
already provided for an elastic clause
372
under Art I of the US Constitution,
373
the 
Supreme Court in this case held that the word ‘necessary’ in the elastic clause does 
not refer to any one way of action, but applies to a wide range of other procedures 
for the implementation of all constitutionally expressed powers. In the words of CJ 
Marshall: 
Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the 
constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly 
adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the 
letter and spirit of the constitution, are constitutional.
374
Judicial review is a powerful tool that a Supreme Court has to protect the 
constitution by determining whether the law passed or being passed is in 
accordance with the constitution. 
370
US Constitution Article II and the practical example of Texas v White, discussed at 5.3.1. 
371