Nyu project on International gmo regulatory Conflicts

468 “Biodiversity treaty called disastrous,” Ths Scientist, September 10, 2003. Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/news/20030910/03, and “Magna Cartagena,” The Financial Express, 10 September 2003. Available at: http://www.financialexpress.com/fe_full_story.php?content_id=38242.

469 Philips (2003), p. 4-5.

470 Haslberger, Alexander G. (2003), “Codex guidelines for Gm foods include the analysis of unintended effects,” Nature Biotechnology, Volume 21, Number 7, pp. 739-741.

471 Philips (2003), p. 4.

472 Idem, p. 4.

473 Stearman (2005), “United States… .”

474 Grupo Bio position is expressed in “Biotecnología. La alternativa estratégica para Argentina,” Buenos Aires, December 2000. Available at: http://www.inai.org.ar/ogm.htm#grupobio.

475 “Lobby a favor de la biotecnología,” La Nación, October 31, 2000. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/00/10/31/e12.htm.

476 Galperín,Carlos, Leonardo Fernández e Ivana Doporto (2001), “Los productos transgénicos, el comercio agrícola y el impacto sobre el agro,” Panorama del Mercosur, No 4, pp-135-168. Available at: http://www.porquebiotecnologia.com.ar/doc/documentos/pdf/ProdComImp.pdf

477 Hodson-de-Jaramillo, Elizabeth and Rafael H. Aramendis (1999), “New confrontations,” Nature Biotechnology, Vol 17, June, pp. 512-513.

478 Quoted in Salgar Ana María (2001), “Organismos genéticamente modificados: aspectos científicos y técnicos,” in Lucos. (ed.) pp. 61-82, pp.73-74.

479 Méndez Brandam (2005), “Granero orgánico del mundo?,” La Nación, June 7, Comercio Exterior section, pp. 1 and 6-7.

480 Huerga (2004), p. 3.

481 SAGPyA and FAO (2004), Evaluación de la capacidad, estructura y logística de manejos post-cosecha de organismos vivos modificados e identificación de estrategias para aplicar el artículo 18, 2.a) del Protocolo de Cartagena sobre seguridad de la biotecnología (TCP/ARG/2903 A). Contexto y opciones para la exportación segregada de maíz OVM y no-OVM en condiciones de bioseguridad, conforme al Protocolo de Cartagena. Resultados Principales, pp. 18-23.

482 Burachick and Traynor (2002), pp. 8-9.

483 Jank, Bernard and Helmut Gaugitsch (2001), “Decision making under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety,” TRENDS in Biotechnology, Vol 19 No 5, May, pp. 194-197.

484 Carullo and Dellacha (2003), p. 55.

485 SAGPyA (2004), Plan Nacional para el Desarrollo de la Biotecnología Agropecuaria 2005-2015, Buenos Aires, December, p. 8.

486 Aguilar, Soledad (2004), “Cuestiones jurídicas en las negociaciones del Protocolo de Cartagena sobre Seguridad en la Biotecnología,” presentation at the II Seminario Biotenología en la Argentina organizad by SAGPyA and UNEP/GEF, Buenos Aires, May 6.

487 Sarquis, Alejandra (2004), “El Protocolo de Cartagena. Aspectos Comerciales,” presentation at the II Seminario Biotenología en la Argentina organizad by SAGPyA and UNEP/GEF, Buenos Aires, May 6.

488 SAGPyA (2005), “Acuerdo Bilateral sobre Biotecnología,” press release. Available at: http://www.sagpya.mecon.gov.ar.

489 Ablin and Paz (2000), p. 60.

490 Ablin and Paz (2000), p. 60. These are their exact words, “(…) no obstante la importancia que este tema pudiera asumir para los intereses argentinos, cabe imaginar que otros Miembros de la OMC con intereses más globales—y una mayor cuota de poder relativo—requirieran clarificar este importante tema para el futuro del comercio mundial.”

491 Kinderler, Julian (2003), “The WTO complaint—why now?,” Nature Biotechnology, Volume 21, Number 7, July, pp. 735-736.

492 Moisés Burachik, personal communication, Buenos Aires, May 2005. See also: Chiaradía, Alfredo (2005), “Intensa actividad de la Argentina ante la OMC,” La Nación, Campo section, June 4, p. 11. Chiaradía is ambassador and secretary of Trade and Economic International Relations.

493 Burachik (2004), p. 2.

494 Anand, P. (20020, “Decision-making when science is ambiguous,” Science, Vol. 295, 8 March, P. 1839.

495 Nelkin Dorothy, “The social and cultural meaning of risk. Biotechnology disputes,” February 8, 2003, manuscript, p. 33.

496 Pinstrup-Andersen, Per and Marc J. Cohen (2001), “Rich and poor country perspectives on biotechnology,” in Phillip G. Pardey, The Future of Food. Biotechnology Markets in an International Setting,Washington, the International Food Policy Research Institute, 2001, pp.17-48.

497 Environics International, Ltd, The Environmental Monitor: 1998 International Report (Toronto: Environics International, Ltd., 1998). Quoted in Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen (2001), p. 25.

498 Quoted in Hoban, Thomas J. (2004), Public Attitudes Toeard Agricultural Biotechnology, ESA Working Paper 04-09, FAO, May. Available at: http://ww.fao.org/es/esa.

499 Sarquis, Alejandra et al. (2003), Consultas sobre Biotecnología en la Argentina, Buenos Aires: SAGPyA, p. 18. Available at: http://porquebiotecnologia.com.ar/doc/documentos/pdf/ConsultasPercepcionPublica.pdf. It is important to note that the survey was conducted in supermarkets, so only middle-class people were interviewed.

500 Krimsky, Sheldom, “The profit of scientific discovery and its normative implications,” Chicago Kent Law Review, Vol 75:3, pages 15-39.

501 Krimsky, pp. 17-8.

502 Krimsky, p. 30.

503 On the Pusztai affair, see: Massod, Ehsan (1999), “Gag on food scientist is lifted as gene modification row hots up…” Nature, Vol. 397, 18 February, p. 547; and Loder, Natasha (1999), “Journal under attack over controversial paper on GM food,” Nature,Vol. 401, 21 October, p. 731. The case was so hot and controversial that the Nuffield Council of Bioethics’ report on GM foods released in 1999 included an appendix on it: Genetically Modified Crops: the Ethical and Social Issues, London, 1999, pp. 139-42, Available at: http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/filelibrary/pdf/-gmcrop.pdf. Pusztai presented his case and talked about the possible impact of conflict of interests and industry’s demand for secrecy in Arpad Pusztai, “GM food safety: scientific and institutional issues,” Science as Culture, Volume 11, Number 1, 2002 pp. 69-92.

504 On the “maize scandal,” see: Quist, David and Ignacio Chapela (2001), “Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico,” Nature, Vol. 414, 29 November, pp. 541-3; Butler, Declan (2002), “Alleged flaws in gene-transfer paper spark row over,” Nature, Vol. 414, 28 February, pp. 948-9; Charles C. Mann, “Has GM corn ‘invaded’ Mexico?” Science, Vol. 295, 1 March 2002, pp. 1617-9; Editorial note, Nature, Vol. 416, 11 April 2002; and Adam, David and Jonathan Knight (2002), “Publish, and be damned,” Nature, Vol. 419, 24 October 2002, pages 772-776.

505 Krimsky, p. 39.

506 Varma, Roli (2000), “Changing research cultures in U.S. industry,” Science, Technology and Human Values, Vol. 25 No. 4, Autumn, pp. 395-416.

507 Varma, p. 414.

508 Stelfox H. T., Chua G., O'Rourke K., Detsky A. S., (1998), “Conflict of interest in the debate over calcium-channel antagonists,” New England Journal of Medicine; 338:101-106, January 8.

509 Bekelman, Justin E., Yan Li, and Cary P. Gross (2003), “Scope and impact of financial conflicts of interest in biomedical research: a systematic review,” JAMA 289: 454-465.

510 Davis, Erwin et al (2001)., Universitry-Industry relationships: Framing the Issues for Academic research in Agricultural Biotechnology, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Pew Initiative in Food and Biotechnology, 2001. Available at: http://www.pewtrust.com/pdf/pew_agbiotech_uni_industry.pdf.

511 Nelkin, Dorothy and Emily Marden, “The StarLink controversy. The competing frames of risk disputes,” April 15, manuscript, pp. 19-20

512 Perry, Joe N. (2002), “Genetically modified crops,” in Michael Ruse and David Castle, Genetically Modified Foods. Debating Biotechnology, Amherst, NY, Prometheus Books, 2002, pp. 115-121.

513 See for example, Nora Bär’s op-ed articles, such as, “El país de las paradojas,” La Nación, November 5, 2003. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/03/11/05/sl_542367.asp; or: “Eureka, la fórmula,” La Nación, September 24, 2003. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/03/09/24/sl_520943.asp. Particularly regarding biotechnology applications, see the highly favorable article by Folgarait, Alejandra (2003), “Quién le teme a Frankenstein?,” in Noticias, October 17 Año XXI, No 19398. Available at: http://www.noticias.uolsinectis.com.ar/esta_edicion/nota.03.htm.

514 Albornoz, Mario et al. (2003), Resultados de la Encuesta de Percepción Percepción Pública de la Ciencia Realizada en Argentina, Brasil, España y Uruguay (RICYT/CYTED-OEI), Buenos Aires, Centro Redes, 2003, p. 38. Available at: http://www.centroredes.org.ar/documentos/files/Doc.Nro9.pdf.

515 Rebecca S. Eisenberg, “How can you patent genes?” AJOB, Summer 2002, Vol. 2, number 3, pp. 3-11.

516 Dorothy Nelkin, “Patenting genes and the public interest,” AJOB, Summer 2002, Vol. 2, number 3, pp. 13-5

517 In the US, the first plant patent, for the “New Dawn” rose, was granted in 1930. Crucial laws were passed in 1970—the Plant Variety Protection Act—and 1985, when the Patent and Trademark Office ruled that “any type of plant could in principle be patented.” Glenn E. Bugos and Daniel J. Kevles, “Plants as intellectual property: American practice, law, and policy in world context,” Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 7, Issue Science after ’40 (1992), pp. 74-104. I have already commented the general legal framework in Argentina regarding patenting plant varieties in Part I.

518 Nelkin, Dorothy and Lori Andrews (1998), “Homo economicus. Commercialization of body tissue in the age of biotechnology,” Hastings Center Report, September-October, pp. 31-9.

519 Nelkin and Andrews, pp. 32-33.

520 Food Ethics Council’s website. Available at: http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~foodeth/ , p. 28.

521 Miller, Henry I. (1999), “The real curse of Frankenfood,” Nature Biotechnology, Vol. 17, February, p. 113.

522 Miller, p. 113.

523 Paarlberg, Robert L. (2001), The Politics of Precaution. Genetically Modified Crops in Developing Countries, Johns Hopkins University Press. The phrase “relatively prosperous” used to describe Argentina in the 1990s certainly has involuntarily ironic connotations after the 2001 crisis.

524 Marco, Alan C. and Gordon C. Rausser (2002), “Mergers and intellectual property in agricultural biotechnology,” in R. E. Evenson, V. Santaniello and D. Silverman, Economic and Social Issues in Agricultural Biotechnology, New York, Cabi International, p. 134.

525 Wapner, Paul (1996), Environmenal Activism and World Civic Politics (Albany: State University of New York, p. 64.

526 Idem, p. 65.

527 Idem, pp. 44-5, 77, and pp. 121-22

528 Wapner, p. 65.

529 Nelkin, “The social and cultural…” pp. 10-15.

530 Alvarez, Lizette (2003), “Consumers in Europe resist gene-altered foods,” The New York Times, February 11, p. A3.

531 Dobson, Alexander (2000), Green Political Thought, New York, Routledge, p. 65.

532 Lewis, M. (1992), Green Delusions: an Environmentalist Critique of Radical Environmentalism, Durham, Duke University Press, p. 3. Quoted in Dobson, p. 203. (Emphasis is mine)

533 Albornoz at al. p. 53.

534 Sarquis et al. (2003), p. 18.

535 Sen, Amartya (2002), “How to judge globalism,” The American Prospect, Vol 13 No 1, January 1/January 14, pp. A2-6. Available at: http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/1/sen-a.html

536 Shiva, Vandana (1999), “Ecological balance in an era of globalization,” in Nicholas Low, Global Ethics and Environment, New York, Routledge, pp. 47-8. (Emphasis in original)

537 Singer, Peter (2002), One World. The Ethics of Globalization, New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 51.

538 Heller, Chaia (2002), “From scientific risk to paysan savoir faire: peasant expertise in the French and global debate over GM crops,” Science as Culture, Vol. 11, Number 1, pp. 5-37.

539 Heller (2002), p. 27.

540 “The Doha squabble,” The Economist, March 29, 2003, pp. 63-4.

541 Dickson, David (2003), “Public attitudes: where are they heading?,” speech delivered to the Conference on New Biotechnology Food and Crops: Science, Safety and Society, United Nations Conference Center, Bangkok, 10-12 July. Available at: http://www1.oecd.org/bangkok/dickson.doc.

542 See, for example: “Destrozaron comercios frente al Obelisco,” La Nación, December 20, 2001. Available at: http://www.lanacion.acom.ar/01/12/20/dp_360858.asp.

543 Trigo et al.(2002), p. 171.

544 Russell, Milton and Michael Gruber (1987), “Risk assessment in environmental policy-making,” Science, Vol. 236, April 17, 1987, pp. 286-290.

545 Magnus, David and Arthur Caplan (2002), “Food for thought,” in Michael Ruse and David Castle, p. 86.

546 Magnus and Caplan (2002), p. 84.

547 Nelkin, Dorothy and Susan Lindee (1995), The DNA Mystique. The Gene as a Cultural Icon, New York: WH Freeman.

548 Slovic, Paul (1987), “Perception of risk,” Science, Vol. 236, April 17, pp. 280-5.

549 A study is commented in Perry (2002), page 118. However, another study challenges this view: Lynn J. Frewer, Chaya Howard and Richard Shepherd (1997), “Public concerns in the United Kingdom about general and specific applications of genetic engineering: risks, benefits, and ethics” Science, Technology and Human Values, Vol 22, Issue 1 (Winter), pp. 98-124.

550 Krimsky, Sheldom (1995), “Regulating recombinant DNA research and its applications,” in Dorothy Nelkin (ed.), Controversy: Politics of Technical Decisions, Newbury Park, Cal., Sage Publications, pp. 219-248.

551 Slovic (1987), p. 285

552 Nelkin and Marden, pp. 25-6.

553 Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechonolgy, “Post-market oversight of biotech foods,” April 2003. Available at: http://pewagbiotech.org/research/postmarket/

554 Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechonolgy, “The StarLink case: issues for the future,” October 2001. Available at: http://pewagbiotech.org/research/issuebriefs.starlinkt/

555 Slovic (1987), p. 283.

556 Among others: Comstock (2002), p. 102; Magnus and Caplan (2002), p. 84; and Paarlberg (2001), p. 5.

557 Comstock, p. 97. He mentions a study performed by Dermot Hayes, John A. Fox, and Jason F. Shogren, “Consumer preferences for food irradiation: how favorable and unfavorable descriptions affect preferences for irradiated pork in experimental auctions,” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 24, Number 1 (2002): pp. 73-95.

558 Comstock (2002), p. 100.

559 Thompson, Paul B. (2002), “Bioethics issues in a biobased economy,” in Michael Ruse and David Castle, pp. 68-76.

560 Diaz Bonilla, Eugenio et al. (2000), Food Security and Trade Negotiations in World Trade Organizations: a Cluster Analysis of Country Groups, Washington, Trade and Macroeconomics Division, International Food Policy Research Institute, p. 23.

561 At least, that is what an Argentine economist linked to the agricultural sector says in a recent article. Ambrosetti, Ernesto (2003), “Hay que dejarlo invertir,” La Nación, November 21. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/suples/campo/0347/db_547367.asp.

562 Sen, Amartya (1999), Development as Freedom, New York: Anchor Books, p. 170.

563 Idem, p. 165. (Emphasis in original)

564 “In pictures: starvation in Argentina,” BBC News World Edition. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas- /2484061.stm.

565 Quoted in Prada, Leandro (2002), “Starving children in once-rich Argentina,” The Washington Times, 11/18. Available at: http://www.washtimes.com/upi-breaking/20021118-051623-9166r.htm.

566 World Bank, “Argentina at a glance.” Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/aag/arg_aag.pdf

567 Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen (2001), p. 18.

568 This is an estimation of the Center for Studies on Nutrition (CESNI), an Argentine medical association. Quoted in Amato, Alberto (2003), “Desnutrición infantil: el verdadero riesgo país,” Clarín, November 16, Available at: http://old.clarin.com/suplementos/zona/2003/11/16/z-659738.htm.

569 Sarquis et al. (2003), p.15.

570 See Nora Bär’s “Mansa, una ternera única en el mundo,” La Nación, October 2, 2003. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/03/10/02/sl_532215.asp; and “Un laboratorio obtuvo leche medicinal de una vaca clon,” Clarín, October 2, 2003. Available at http://old.clarin.com/diario/2003/10/02/s-02907.htm.

571 “Encuesta de opinión: Qué piensan de la ciencia los argentinos?,” Ciencia Hoy, Vol. 8, No 48, September/October 1998. Available at: http://www.ciencia-hoy.retina.ar/hoy48/encu01.htm.

572 Burachik and Traynor (2002), p. 42.

573 Idem, p. 42.

574 Carullo and Dellacha (2003), p. 55.

575 See, for example, Por qué Biotenología website, http://www.porquebiotecnologia.com. On the program that supports this site, which has an annual funding of U$S 170,000 provided by ASA, according to Burachik and Traynor, they comment: “While the quality of the information presented in high, most of it comes from foreign sources and is not focused on what is happening in Argentina.” They also list “the educational efforts” performed by the Argentine Forum of Biotechnology (FAB) in 2000, which targeted government leaders, people from the food industry, journalists, and consumer representatives, as well as CONABIA’s officials’ activities. “It is expected that these and other actions already programmed for the near future will help counteract campaigns against GMOs and bring some rationality into the discussion.” Burachik and Traynor (2002), pp. 36-37.

576 Burachik and Traynor (2002), p. 46.

577 Sarquis et al. (2003), p. 3.

578 Idem, p. 14.

579 Idem, p. 16.

580 Quoted in Charles J. Arntzen, et al., (2003) “GM crops: science, politics and communication,” Nature Reviews/Genetics, Vol. 4, October, pp.839-843.

581 “Desde mañana, el Nuevo Campo en La Nación,” La Nación, November 21, 2003. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/03/11/21/dq_547194.asp

582 Rapoport (2000), chapter one.

583 Gainza, Malena (2002), “La Argentina transgénica,” La Nación, July 25. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/02/07/25/do_416434.asp .

584 Bernaudo, Guillermo (2002), “Argentina transgénica,” La Nación, Cartas de lectores section, August 3. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/02/08/03/do_419157.asp.

585 Gainza, Malena (2002), “Transgénicos,” La Nación, Cartas de lectores August 6. Available at: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/02/08/06/dp_420059.asp .

586 Velar, Carlos (2002), “Transgénicos II,” La Nación, Cartas de lectores section,