This book explores the impact of the 1917 Revolution on factory life

part 2 (Cambridge, 1978), p.404.

A. Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cam-
bridge, Mass., Harvard, 1962), pp.135-8.

E.E. Kruze, Polozhenie rabochego klassa Rossii v igoo—i^gg. (Leningrad, 1976),
p.127.

Ya. S. Rozenfeld and K.I. Klimenko, Istoriya mashinostroeniya SSSR
(Moscow, 1961), pp.102, 105, 109.

V.I. Grinevetskii, Poslevoennye perspekiivy russkoi promyshlennosti (Moscow,
1918), p.46.

Rozenfeld and Klimenko, Istoriya, pp. 116, 123.

Istoriya rabochikh Leningrada, ed. S.N. Valk, vol. 1 (Leningrad, 1972), p.463.

Lyashchenko, National Economy, p.762.

Rashin, Formirovanie, p. 196.

Z.V. Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda v period podgotovki i provedeniya
oktyabr'skogo vooruzhennogo vosstaniya (Moscow, 1965), pp.25-6.

27. 
    Spisok fabrichno-zavodskikh predpriyatii, passim.
    
28. 
    Rabochii klass i rabochee dvizhenie v Rossii v igijg. (Moscow, 1964), p.75.
    
29. 
    Rashin, Formirovanie, p.83.
    
30. 
    Rab. klass i rab. dvizhenie, p.76.
    
31. 
    E.E. Kruze, Peterburgskie rabochie v igi2-i4gg. (Moscow, 1954), p.69.
    
32. 
    A.I. Davidenko, ‘K voprosu o chislennosti i sostave proletariata Peter-
    burga v nachale XX veka’, Istoriya rabochego Klassa Leningrada, issue 2
    (Leningrad, 1963), p.97; Kruze, Peterburgskie rabochie, p.69.
    
33. 
    L.S. Gaponenko, Rabochii Klass Rossii v igijg. (Moscow, 1970), p.88.
    
34. 
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.32.
    
35. 
    ^ibid-
    
36. 
    ibid., p.33.
    
37. 
    ibid.
    
38. 
    J.H. Bater, St. Petersburg: Industrialisation and Change (Montreal, McGill,
    

1976).

39. 
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.30.
    
40. 
    Statisticheskie dannye Petrograda, p. 11.
    
41. 
    Materialy po statistike Petrograda, issue 1, p.33.
    
42. 
    Bater, St. Petersburg, p.352.
    
43. 
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.59.
    
44. 
    Vyborgskaya storona (Leningrad, 1957), p.u.
    
45. 
    S.N. Semanov, Peterburgskie rabochie nakanune pervoi russkoi revolyutsii
    (Moscow, 1966), p. 152.
    
46. 
    1st. rab. klassa Len., vol.i, p.409.
    
47. 
    S.N. Prokopovich, Byudzhetypeterburgskikh rabochikh (St Petersburg, 1909),
    p. 10.
    
48. 
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.58.
    
49. 
    ibid., p. 59.
    
50. 
    Kruze and Kutsentov, ‘Naselenie’, p. 108.
    
51. 
    ibid., p. 109.
    
52. 
    R.E. Johnson, Peasant and Proletarian (Leicester University Press, 1979);
    R. Munting, ‘Outside Earnings in the Russian Peasant Farm: the case of
    Tula province, 1900-17’, Journal of Peasant Studies, 3 (1976), 444.
    
53. 
    Kruze and Kutsentov, ‘Naselenie’, p. 106.
    
54. 
    N.A. Shuster, Peterburgskie rabochie v igoy-Jgg. (Leningrad, 1976), p. 18;
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.40.
    
55. 
    Shuster, Peterburgskie rabochie, p.21.
    
56. 
    A.S. Smirnov, ‘Zemlyacheskie organizatsii rabochikh i soldat v igi7g.’,
    Istoricheskie zapiski, 60 (1957) 86-123; T. Trenogova, Bor'bapetrogradskikh
    bol'shevikov za krest'yanstvo v igijg. (Leningrad, 1949), p. 78.
    
57. 
    Prokopovich, Byudzhety, p.7.
    
58. 
    M. Davidovich, Peterburgskii tekstil'nyi rabochii v ego byudzhetakh (St
    Petersburg, 1912), p.8.
    
59. 
    Shuster, Peterburgskie rabochie, p.30.
    
60. 
    P. Timofeev, Chem zhivet zavodskii rabochii (St Petersburg, 1906),
    pp.12-13, *8.
    
61. 
    Tsentral'noe Statisticheskoe Upravlenie (Ts.S.U.), Trudy, vol.xxvi, issue
    2, PP-25, 35-
    

62 A.G. Rashin, Sostav fabrichno-zavodskogo proletariaia (Moscow, 1930),

PP-25, 35-
63 V.Z. Drobizhev, A.K. Sokolov and V.A. Ustinov, Rabochii klass Sovetskoi
Rossii v pervyi godproletarskoi diktatury (Moscow, 1975), p.93.

64. 
    One should not interpret these figures, as does L.M. Ivanov, to mean that
    by 1914 the working class itself had become the main source of recruits to
    industry rather than the peasantry. It is likely that many peasants who
    came to industry in the pre-1917 period left during the upheavals of the
    Civil War and were no longer working in industry by the time of the 1929
    census. L.M. Ivanov, ‘Preemstvennost' Fabrichno-zavodskogo truda i
    formirovanie proletariata v Rossii’, Rabochii klass i rabochee dvizhenie v
    Rossii, 1861-igiygg. (Moscow, 1966).
    
65. 
    E.P. Thompson, ‘Time, work-discipline and industrial capitalism’, Past
    and Present, 38 (1967), 56-97.
    
66. 
    Rashin, Formirovanie, p.504.
    
67. 
    Kruze, Peterburgskie, p.75.
    
68. 
    Volobuev, Proletariat i burzhuaziya, p.20.
    
69. 
    I.P. Leiberov and O.I. Shkaratan, ‘K voprosu o sostave petrogradskikh
    promyshlennykh rabochikh v 1917g.’, Voprosy istorii, 1 (1961), 52.
    
70. 
    ibid., 53-4.
    
71. 
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.36.
    
72. 
    I.P. Leiberov, Na shturm samoderzjhaviya (Moscow, 1979), p. 17. This
    contradicts the claim of Ivanov, ‘Preemstvennost'’, p.76, and Rashin,
    Sostav, p.30, that more wartime recruits came from the working class than
    from the peasantry.
    
73. 
    Leiberov and Shkaratan, ‘K voprosu o sostave’, p.51.
    
74. 
    Krasnaya Letopis', 3 (1939), 169.
    
75. 
    M.D. Rozanov, Obukhovtsy (Leningrad, 1965), p.278.
    
76. 
    Leiberov and Shkaratan, ‘K voprosu o sostave’, p.47.
    
77. 
    Rab. klass i rab. dvizhenie v igijg., p.82.
    
78. 
    M.I. Gilbert, ‘K voprosu o sostave promyshlennykh rabochikh SSSR v
    gody grazhdanskoi voiny’, Istoriy a proletariata SSSR, 3 (1934) 214—15; N.P.
    Payalin, Zavod imeni Lenina, 1857—1918 (Moscow, 1933), p-313-
    
79. 
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.42.
    
80. 
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, pp.43-4, concludes that ‘the figure of 50%
    for new recruits to the working class of Petrograd during the war years can
    scarcely be considered an underestimate’. L.M. Kleinbort, Istoriya
    bezrabotitsy v Rossii, 1857-igiggg. (Moscow, 1925), p.272, says, without
    citing a source, that at the beginning of 1918 the Commissariat of Labour
    (Narkomtrud) reckoned that half the workers of Petrograd were either
    tied to the land or inexperienced wartime recruits.
    
81. 
    N.D. Karpetskaya, Rabotnitsy i velikii oktyabr' (Leningrad, 1974), p ig.
    
82. 
    Golos rabotnitsy, 5—6, 17 June 1917, p. 14. A perusal of the job-vacancies
    column of Petrogradskaya Gazeta shows that the type most sought after as a
    domestic servant was a rural girl with no male acquaintances and
    prepared to work hard.
    
83. 
    S.G. Strumilin; ‘Sostav proletariata sovetskoi Rossii v I9i7-i9gg.’, Dva
    goda diktatury proletariata (Moscow, 1919), p. 15.
    

64. 
    A. Shlyapnikov, Semnadtsatyi god, vol.i (Moscow, 1923), pp.8-11.
    
65. 
    Cited by Rashin, Formirovanie, pp.235-6.
    
66. 
    Vestnik professional'nykh soyuzov, 2, 15 July 1918, p.7.
    
67. 
    ibid., p.9.
    
68. 
    J.W. Scott and L.A. Tilly, Women, work and the family (New York, 1978).
    
69. 
    Kruze, Peterburgskie rabochie, p.80.
    
70. 
    ibid. p.8o.
    
71. 
    Ts.S.U., Trudy, vol.XXVI, issue 2 (Moscow, 1921), pp.18-23.
    
72. 
    ibid.
    
73. 
    Metallist, 6, 18 June 1918, p. 10.
    
74. 
    ibid.
    
75. 
    Materialy ob ekonomicheskom polozhenii i professional'noi organizatsii peterburg-
    skikh rabochikh po metallu (St Petersburg, 1909), p.85.
    
76. 
    S.G. Strumilin, Problemy ekonomiki truda (Moscow, 1964), pp.69-71.
    
77. 
    ibid.; S. Bernshtein-Kogan, Chislennost’, sostav i polozhenie peterburgskikh
    rabochikh (St Petersburg, 1910), pp.51, 54.
    
78. 
    V. Yu. Krupyanskaya, ‘Evolyutsiya semeino-bytovogo uklada
    rabochikh’, Rossiiskiiproletariat-oblik, bor'ba,gegemoniya (Moscow, 1970),
    p.277.
    
79. 
    Tkach, 2 (1917), 7.
    
80. 
    Compare I. Pinchbeck, Women Workers and The Industrial Revolution
    (London, Frank Cass, 1969), p.313; S. Rowbotham, Hidden from History
    (London, Pluto, 1973), p.57; T. Dublin, ‘Women, Work and Protest in
    the Early Lowell Mills’, Labor History, 16, no.i (1975).
    
81. 
    M. Freysinnet, Le processus de dequalification - surqualifwation de la force de
    travail (Paris, 1974), pp.121-2.
    
82. 
    A. Gorz, ‘Technology, technicians and class struggle’, in A. Gorz, ed.,
    The Division of Labour, (Brighton, Harvester, 1976). D. Lee, ‘Skill, craft
    and class: a theoretical critique and a critical case’, Sociology, 1 (1981);
    H.A. Turner went so far as to argue that workers are skilled or unskilled
    ‘according to whether or not entry to their occupations is deliberately
    restricted and not, in the first place, according to the nature of the
    occupation itself.’ H.A. Turner, Trade Union Structure and Growth
    (London, George, Allen & Unwin, 1962), p.182.
    
83. 
    A. Touraine, L’evolution du travail ouvrier aux usines Renault (Paris, 1955);
    see too H. Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital (New York, Monthly
    Review Press, 1974).
    
84. 
    Rukovodyashchie materialy i postanovleniya tsentral'nogo komiteta vserossiiskogo
    soyuza rabochikh metallistov, issue 3 (Moscow, 1924), pp.80-193.
    
85. 
    E.J. Hobsbawm, Labouring Men (London, 1968); K. Burgess, The Origins
    of British Industrial Relations (London, Croom Helm, 1975), Ch. 1.
    
86. 
    Strumilin, Problemy, p.63.
    
87. 
    A.M. Buiko, Put' rabochego: zapiski starogo bol'shevika (Moscow, 1934),
    

p-3°.

64. 
    A. Buzinov, Za Nevskoi zastavoi (Moscow, 1930), pp.20-1.
    
65. 
    The Bolshevik, M.I. Kalinin, recalled in 1940: ‘I remember how in the
    underground a dispute arose among us: was a worker-revolutionary
    obliged to work as well as he was able ... Some said: “We cannot, we are
    

organically incapable of letting a bad piece of work out of our hands - it
would sicken us and demean our dignity.” Others argued against them
that it was not for us to worry about the quality of our work. It was the
job of the capitalist. We only worked for them.’ Cited by O.I. Shkaratan
and A.Z. Vakzer, ‘Razvitie sotsialisticheskogo otnosheniya k trudu:
rabochie Leningrada v igi7-24gg.’, Uchenye zapiski Len. gos. ped. in-ta.,
165 (1958), p. 108. See also Timofeev, Chem zhivet, p.8, for another
example.

no Timofeev, Chem zhivet, pp.io-n.

in M. Mitel'man, B. Glebov, A. Ul'yanskii, Istoriya putilovskogo zavoda,
1901-ij, 3rd edn. (Moscow, 1961), p.357.

112. 
     S. Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era,
     1890—1920 (Chicago, 1964), p. 120.
     
113. 
     Materialy po istoriiprofessional'nogo dvizheniya v Rossii, 1 (Moscow, 1925),
     pp. 16-17.
     
114. 
     J. Hinton, The First Shop Stewards Movement (London, Allen and Unwin,
     •973); C. Goodey, ‘Factory Committees and the Dictatorship of the
     Proletariat, 1918’, Critique, 3 (1974), 31.
     
115. 
     I. Gordienko, Iz boevogoproshlogo, igi4~i8gg. (Moscow, 1957), p.34. My
     emphasis. To say that the mood of skilled workers was ‘indifferent’, is not
     to say that there was not a certain latent hostility to the new wartime
     recruits. The syndicalist leader of the metalworkers’ union, A. Gastev,
     wrote: ‘Even in Russia, where craft consciousness [tsekhovshchina] has not
     built as strong a nest for itself as in the West, in the factories among both
     management and workers there is a suspicion of all newcomers who are
     not connected with factory professions. Among turners and fitters one
     still finds a scornful attitude towards the “shoemakers” and “bakers”
     who are joining the ranks of the factory chemorabochie [unskilled workers]
     in their hundreds.’ Vestnik metallista, 2 (1918), p. 10.
     
116. 
     S.G. Strumilin, Zarabotnaya plata, p.15. His method was to examine
     wage-levels in different industries between June 1914 and June 1916,
     and to translate the wages of all categories of worker into ratios of the
     wages of an adult male chemorabochii - letting the latter’s wage equal 100.
     By determining the changes in these ratios during the war, Strumilin
     obtained an indirect index of de-skilling. It seems to me, however, that
     there are problems with this method. Firstly, it assumes that the ‘skill’ of
     a chemorabochii is constant across industry and across time. Secondly,
     wages are not a good indicator of skill, both because of inflation and of
     inter-factory variation.
     
117. 
     S.G. Strumilin, Problemy, p.57. Although international comparisons are
     treacherous because of the different classifications used, for what it is
     worth, it was estimated that in Germany the proportion of skilled
     workers in electrical, machine-construction, car, wire and cable indus-
     tries was 30% in 1914 and 29% in 1925. In England in the mechanical-
     engineering industry, 37% of the workforce were skilled in 1913 and
     35% in 1925. G. Friedmann, Industrial Society (Glencoe, Illinois, Free
     Press, 1955), p.200.
     
118. 
     Drobizhev et al., Rabochii klass sovetskoi Rossii, p.84.
     

112. 
     Rashin, Formirovanie, p.83.
     
113. 
     Material'y k uchetu rabochego sostava i rabochego rynka (Petrograd, 1916),
     p. 128.
     
114. 
     Istoriya leningradskogo soyuza rabochego poligraficheskogo proizvodstva, vol.i
     (Leningrad, 1925), pp.n-13.
     
115. 
     A. Tikhanov, ‘Rabochie-pechatniki v gody voiny’, Materialy po istorii
     professional’nogo dvizheniya v Rossii, vol.3 (Moscow, 1925), p. 117.
     
116. 
     1st len. soyuza rab. polig., p. 15.
     
117. 
     A.G. Rashin, ‘Gramotnost' i narodnoe obrazovanie v Rossii v XIXv. i
     nachale XXv., Istoricheskie zapiski, 37 (1951), 37.
     
118. 
     Rashin, Formirovanie, p.595.
     
119. 
     Materialy po statistike Petrograda, issue 4 (1921), p.23.
     
120. 
     Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.44.
     
121. 
     Vestnikprofessional’nykh soyuzov, 2 (1918), p.9.
     
122. 
     Metallist, 6 (1918), p.8.
     
123. 
     Strumilin, Problemy, p.61.
     
124. 
     Leningradskii gos. ist. arkhiv (LGIA), f.416, op.5, d.24, 1.21.
     
125. 
     Rashin, Formirovanie, p.583.
     
126. 
     Statisticheskie dannye Petrograda (1916), p.24.
     
127. 
     ibid.
     
128. 
     Strumilin, Problemy, p.63.
     
129. 
     ibid., 63-9.
     
130. 
     L. Haimson, ‘The Problem of Social Stability in Urban Russia,
     1905-17’, Slavic Review, 23, no.4 (1964); vol.24, no.i (1965); Johnson,
     Peasant and Proletarian.
     
131. 
     R. Zelnik, ‘Russian Workers and the Revolutionary Movement’, Journal
     of Social History, 16, no.2 (1972-3); V.E. Bonnell, ‘Trade Unions, Parties
     and the State in Tsarist Russia’, Politics and Society, 9, no.3 (1980); S.A.
     Smith, ‘Craft Consciousness, Class Consciousness: Petrograd 1917’,
     History Workshop, 11 (1981).
     
132. 
     At the Putilov works in 1913 the daily earnings of an unskilled woman
     worker were 36% of those of the highest-paid man. In Germany in the
     same year the hourly earnings of an unskilled metalworker were 26% of
     those of a skilled one. A.P. Serebrovskii, Revolyutsiya i zarabotnaya plata
     rabochikh metallicheskoi pronyshlennosti (Petrograd, 1917), p.8; G. Bry,
     Wages in Germany, 1871-1945 (Princeton, N.J., i960), p.71.
     
133. 
     L. Althusser, For Marx (London, Penguin, 1969), Ch.3.
     

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

1. 
   V.Ya. Laverychev, Tsarizm i rabochii vopros, i86i—igijgg. (Moscow, 1972);
   G. von Rimlinger, ‘Autocracy and factory order in early Russian
   industrialisation’, Journal of Economic History, 20 (i960), 67-92.
   
2. 
   Laverychev, Tsarizm i rabochii vopros (Moscow, 1972).
   
3. 
   J. Schneiderman, Sergei Zubatov and revolutionary Marxism (New York,
   Ithaca, 1976); D. Pospielovsky, Russian Police Trade Unionism (London,
   Weidenfeld, 1971).
   

4. 
   P.A. Berlin, Russkaya burzhuaziya v staroe i novoe vremya (Moscow, 1922),
   p.204.
   
5. 
   V.E. Bonnell, ‘Trade Unions, Parties and the State in Tsarist Russia’,
   Politics and Society, 9, no.3 (1980).
   
6. 
   S. Pollard, The Genesis of Modem Management (London, 1965).
   
7. 
   S.N. Semanov, Peterburgskie rabochie nakanune pervoi russkoi revolyutsii
   (Moscow, 1966), p.110.
   
8. 
   ibid.
   
9. 
   On 1905 see S.M. Schwarz, The Russian Revolution of 1905 (Chicago, 1967);
   W. Sablinsky, The Road to Bloody Sunday (Princeton, N.J., 1976).
   
10. 
    S. Gvozdev, Zapiski fabrichnogo inspektora (Moscow, 1911), pp. 117, 119.
    
11. 
    O. Crisp, ‘Labour and industrialisation in Russia’, Cambridge Economic
    History of Europe, vol. vii, part 2 (Cambridge, 1978), p.382.
    
12. 
    Istoriya rabochikh Leningrada, ed. S.N. Valk, vol. 1 (Leningrad, 1972), p.347;
    N.P. Payalin, Zavod imeni Lenina, 1857—igi8 (Moscow 1933), p-258; K.
    Marx, Capital, vol.i (London, Penguin, 1976 edn.), p.549.
    
13. 
    A. Stinchcombe, ‘Bureaucratic and Craft Administration of Production’,
    Administrative Science Quarterly, 4 (1959-60).
    
14. 
    P. Timofeev, Chem zhivet zavodskii rabochii (St Petersburg, 1906), pp.5, 48.
    
15. 
    ibid., p.92; F. Bulkin, Na zare profdvizheniya, Istoriya peterburgskogo soyuza
    metallistov, 1906-14 (Moscow, 1924), p.297.
    
16. 
    Timofeev, Chem zhivet, pp.57, 97; compare J. Foster, Class Struggle in the
    Industrial Revolution (London, Methuen, 1974), pp.227-8.
    
17. 
    Stinchcombe, ‘Bureaucratic and Craft Administration’; C.R. Littler,
    ‘Understanding Taylorism’, British Journal of Sociology, 29, no.2 (1978).
    
18. 
    A. Gastev, ‘Novaya industriya’, Vestnik metallista, 2 (1918), 22; V.I.
    Grinevetskii, Poslevoennyeperspektivy russkoipromyshlennosti (Moscow, 1918),
    p.151.
    
19. 
    A.G. Rashin, Formirovanie rabochego klassa Rossii (Moscow, 1958), p.63.
    
20. 
    S.G. Strumilin, ‘Sostav proletariata sovetskoi Rossii v 1917— i9gg-’, Dva
    goda diktatury proletariata (Moscow, 1919), p. 15; Narodnoe khozyaistvo, 5
    (1921), 143-6. My calculation.
    
21. 
    Materialy po statistike Petrograda, issue 2 (Petrograd, 1920), p.44.
    
22. 
    For the concept of‘contradictory class location’, see E.O. Wright, ‘Class
    Boundaries in Advanced Capitalist Societies’, New Left Review, 98 (1976).
    
23. 
    In 1917 the Socialist Revolutionary, M. Kapitsa, wrote: ‘Along with their
    immediate clerical, technical and accounting duties, sluzhashchie took on
    duties of a police-administrative character, which placed them squarely
    on the side of management, and which encouraged a benighted class
    consciousness.’ Delo Naroda, 124, 11 August 1917, p.i.
    
24. 
    Bulkin, Na zare profdvizheniya, pp.6o— 1.
    
25. 
    Timofeev, Chem zhivet, p. 110.
    
26. 
    A.E. Badaev, The Bolsheviks in the Tsarist Duma (London, 1932).
    
27. 
    1st. mb. Len., p.473; Krasnaya letopis', 3 (1926), 8.
    
28. 
    Rabotnitsa, 1-2, 10 May 1917, p.12.
    
29. 
    Pravda, 32, 14 April 1917, p.4.
    
30. 
    Stepanov, Rabochie Petrograda, p.63.
    
31. 
    ibid.
    

32. 
    1st. rab. Len., pp.348, 407.
    
33. 
    M.G. Fleer, Rabochee dvizhenie v Rossii v gody imperialisticheskoi voiny
    (Leningrad, 1926), pp.65-6.
    
34. 
    1st. rab. Len., p.472.
    
35.